• Effect of Aromatic Burning Rate Inhibitor on the Combustion Performance of HMX-CMDB Propellants

  GONG Ru-nan, CHENG Guo-rong, ZHAO Zhuo-an, CHEN Song, LIU Suo-en, LIAN Jian-biao, ZHANG Bing, CHEN Jin-fang, LIU Xiao-lu

  Online:April 07, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026005

  Abstract(25) HTML(102) PDF(989.61 K)( 18)

  Abstract:In order to explore the effect of aromatic compounds on the combustion performance of CMDB propellant， 2，2"-（propane-1，1-diyl）bis（4-（tert-butyl）phenol） （PDBP） was used to prepare HMX-CMDB propellant， and the combustion performance of HMX-CMDB propellants with different PDBP contents was studied using the target line method. The results showed that with the increase of PDBP content， the burning rate and pressure index of HMX-CMDB propellant significantly decreased. For HMX-CMDB propellant containing 7% PDBP， the burning rate at 16 MPa decreased to 8.55 mm·s^-1， and the pressure index decreased to 0.217. Compared with the sucrose octaacetate （SOA）， HMX-CMDB propellant containing the same mass of PDBP exhibited almost unchanged burning rate in the low-pressure region （8-10 MPa）， a further reduced burning rate in the high-pressure region （12-16 MPa）， resulting in a lower pressure index. In addition， after replacing SOA with 1% PDBP， the detonation heat of HMX-CMDB propellant was reduced by only 20 kJ/kg. Based on chemical structure analysis， the mechanism of PDBP"s burning rate inhibition effect is as follows： the aromatic molecule decompose to form protons and structurally stable radical molecules with conjugated π bonds， and the active protons can react with the active radicals released from the decomposition of energetic molecules in the HMX-CMDB propellant， forming stable structures that mitigate the autocatalytic effect of free radicals， thereby reducing the burning rate.

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• Research Progress on Fabrication， Mechanical Behavior and Shock-induced Energy Release Characteristics of Reactive Tungsten Alloys

  ZHANG Zhou-ran, ZHANG Yi-ming, LI Shun, DING Yi-cheng, LI Mu-feng, BAI Shu-xin

  Online:April 08, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026028

  Abstract(15) HTML(82) PDF(4.12 M)( 6)

  Abstract:Reactive tungsten alloys represent a class of metallic energetic structural materials featuring tungsten as a high-density framework reinforced with reactive elements such as Zr and Ti， thereby offering synergistic potential for high-strength load-bearing， kinetic penetration， and shock-induced energy release. This review systematically addresses the compositional design and fabrication methods of reactive tungsten alloys， surveys their typical microstructural characteristics and structure-property relationships， and summarizes penetration behavior and energy release characterization techniques under high-velocity impact conditions. Finally， integrating the need for composition-microstructure-property correlation， future research priorities encompass machine learning-enabled intelligent multi-objective design， development of large-scale component forming technologies with scale-up processing， and in-depth elucidation of multiscale constitutive modeling and penetration-energy release mechanisms， aiming to provide theoretical guidance for the development and engineering implementation of high-performance reactive tungsten alloys.

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• Prediction and Design of Tensile Yield Strength for Reactive Multi-Principal Element Alloys based on Physics-Guided Machine Learning

  ZHANG Zhou-ran, ZHANG Long-hui, PENG Yong-qian, LI Shun, CHEN Rong, BAI Shu-xin

  Online:April 08, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026027

  Abstract(13) HTML(26) PDF(2.45 M)( 4)

  Abstract:Reactive multi-principal element alloys （RMPEAs）， combining superior mechanical properties with high heat of oxidation， possess significant application potential in the field of energetic structural materials. Currently， research on the mechanical properties of these materials focuses predominantly on quasi-static compression. Data regarding tensile yield strength， which governs the structural load-bearing limit and impact-induced fragmentation and energy release characteristics， remain relatively scarce. Furthermore， due to the limited dataset size and strong non-linearity， traditional trial-and-error methods struggle to achieve precise prediction and targeted design of tensile yield strength within the vast compositional space. This study proposes a machine learning-driven design strategy to address the challenges of predicting and optimizing the tensile yield strength of RMPEAs under small-sample conditions. Based on a collected dataset of 88 as-cast RMPEAs and incorporating 33 domain-knowledge-integrated physical descriptors， prediction models were constructed using five machine learning algorithms， with a genetic algorithm employed for feature dimensionality reduction. The results demonstrate that the optimal Support Vector Regression （SVR） model achieves a coefficient of determination （R2） of 0.928 on the test set. SHapley Additive explanation （SHAP） interpretability analysis reveals that the difference in melting points of the constituent elements is the most critical factor influencing yield strength， while differences in atomic radius and electronegativity also play significant positive roles. Inverse design of the compositional space based on the model predicts that within the Ti-Zr-Nb-Ta system， increasing Ta content while reducing Nb content can significantly enhance tensile yield strength. The experimentally fabricated TiZrNbTa_x series alloys validated this trend， confirming the effectiveness and accuracy of this data-driven paradigm for the design of high-performance reactive multi-principal element energetic structural materials.

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• Blasting Failure Characteristics of Rock Specimen under Hole-inner Layered Column Charge

  CHENG Bing, YE Fu, WANG Quan, CHENG Yang-fan, ZONG Qi, XU Ying, WANG Meng-xiang, LI Jun-hao

  Online:April 07, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026001

  Abstract(41) HTML(98) PDF(7.93 M)( 14)

  Abstract:To improve the rock failure effects in open-pit deep hole blasting， a hole-inner layered column charge was designed. Firstly， small charge quantity blasting experiments under different charge forms were conducted to obtain the blasting failure process and final failure morphology of rock specimens. Then， the DEM-PBM （Discrete Element Method - Particle Blast Method） coupled simulation technique was used to numerically simulate the blasting process of various charges， further visually revealing the blasting failure characteristics of rock specimens. Finally， field tests were conducted to investigate the practical application effects of this charge form. The results showed that under the blasting action of hole-inner continuous column charge， only one blasting crack occurs in the 1/4 section at the top of the rock specimen， dividing it into two parts. The horizontal moving velocity of the rock fragment is 2.0 m·s^-1， and a large rock fragment with a diameter of 9.0 cm is produced after blasting. Under the the blasting action of hole-inner layered column charge， multiple blasting cracks occur in the 1/4 section at the top of the rock specimen， dividing it into several fragments. The horizontal moving velocity of the rock fragment increase into 7.0 m·s^-1， and no large fragments with a diameter of more than 5 cm is formed. Numerical simulations visualized the blasting process of rock specimens， and verified that the hole-inner layered column charge could eliminate large fragments with a size exceeding 5.0 cm. In practical open-pit deep hole bench blasting， the use of hole-inner layered column charge could significantly enhance the failure degree of rock mass at the top of bench， reducing the large rock fragment rate from 48.1% to 5.6%， which proved its engineering practicality in improving rock failure effects of deep hole blasting.

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• Twin-Screw Plasticization of High-Nitrogen Nitrocellulose： Insights from Molecular Simulation and Rheological Characterization

  FANG-Song-hang, LUO Gui-ying, YOU Ting, DAI Jiu-shaung, ZHOU Jie

  Online:March 31, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025248

  Abstract(56) HTML(132) PDF(2.58 M)( 50)

  Abstract:To improve the plasticizing effect of high-nitrogen single-base gun propellant and determine appropriate process parameters for high-nitrogen nitrocellulose （NC） during continuous twin-screw plastication， Molecular dynamics simulation was employed to analyze the effects of ethanol-ether mass ratio and solvent-NC mass ratio on NC plasticization. Ethanol-ether solubility experiments and rheological tests of the plasticized material were conducted to verify the simulation results. Results show that the solubility parameter of the ethanol-ether mixed solvent closely matches that of high-nitrogen NC. Strong hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions exist between high-nitrogen NC and ethanol， while van der Waals forces dominate between NC and ether. At an ethanol-ether mass ratio of 1∶1.4， ethanol forms strong hydrogen bonds with NC， resulting in higher solubility， which is in good consistency with the experimental results that NC exhibits maximum solubility at an ethanol-ether mass ratio of 1∶1.36. Increasing the solvent-NC mass ratio within a certain range weakens the intramolecular hydrogen-bond interaction of NC and increases the radius of gyration of the molecular chains. These changes are correlated with the macroscopic phenomena of reduced shear viscosity of the material and a more compact and uniform extruded strands surface. At a solvent-to-NC mass ratio of 0.85， NC exhibits the largest radius of gyration for NC （2.24 nm） and the fewest intramolecular hydrogen bonds， which aligns with the experimental result that the apparent shear viscosity of the material is minimized at a solvent-NC mass ratio of 0.825. Due to the combined effects of strong screw shear and solvent volatilization， it is recommended to use a lower screw speed when plasticizing high-nitrogen NC with the simulated solvent-NC mass ratio. Additionally， appropriately increasing the screw speed under a low solvent-NC mass ratio can also effectively reduce material viscosity， attention must be given to the potential adverse effects caused by shear-induced heating.

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• Energy Deposition Mechanism in “Electro-Chemical Coupling Explosion” Processes

  WANG Cheng, WEI Ding, LI Xing-han, WANG Hang-yu, LIN Jia-rui, CHEN Hao-dong, GAN Yun-dan

  Online:April 03, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025269

  Abstract(19) HTML(158) PDF(1.61 M)( 21)

  Abstract:To elucidate the energy deposition mechanism of electro-chemical coupled explosion and provide a scientific basis for parameter optimization and precise control of related devices， an experimental platform was established to systematically investigate the effects of aluminum wire diameter （0.1-0.4 mm） and initial charging voltage （25-40 kV） on the detonation of HMX driven by electrical wire explosion. The results reveal that the electro-chemical coupled explosion comprises four characteristic stages： wire vaporization and plasma expansion， HMX ignition， HMX detonation， and disintegration of the detonation-product conductive channel. A quantitative criterion system for identifying mechanism transitions was established by defining the energy fraction in the HMX detonation stage （η_Ⅲ=E_Ⅲ/E_total） and the power peak ratio （γ=P_p2/P_p1）. When η_Ⅲ > 90% and γ > 0.5， the system operates in the HMX-dominated “electro-chemical coupled explosion” mode； when η_Ⅲ decreases to 70%-80% and γ <0.2， it transitions to the Al-dominated “electrical explosion” mode； when η_Ⅲ≈0， γ≈0， and current oscillations disappear， it enters the resistance-dominated “capacitive discharge” mode. The wire diameter governs the fundamental transition of energy deposition mechanisms by controlling the effective vaporized and ionized mass fraction of aluminum. As the diameter increases from 0.1 mm to 0.4 mm， the energy release mechanism sequentially undergoes the three modes described above. The initial charging voltage regulates the intensity and efficiency of the coupled explosion through a power density enhancement mechanism. Increasing the voltage from 25 kV to 40 kV boosts the first power peak by 3.2 times， shortens the ignition delay by 62%， increases the energy deposited in the HMX detonation stage by 3.0 times， and raises the total deposited energy by 3.3 times. This study demonstrates that enhancing the efficiency of electro-chemical coupled explosion requires a combined strategy of reducing the wire diameter and increasing the initial charging voltage. The established quantitative criterion system and synergistic regulation laws provide a critical scientific basis for parameter optimization and precise control of electro-chemical coupled explosion technology.

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• Research Progress on Dynamic Response and Energy Release Mechanisms of Reactive Damage Elements

  YU Jin-jian, DU Ning, REN Shi-chao, GUO Qiu-ping, FU Hua-meng

  Online:March 30, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025272

  Abstract(47) HTML(150) PDF(5.53 M)( 84)

  Abstract:Reactive damage elements integrate kinetic penetration and chemical energy release mechanisms. In order to investigate the current status and development trends of energy release characteristics of reactive damage elements under explosive loading and impact, and to comprehensively analyze research progress in reaction mechanisms, penetration-reaction coupled damage models, numerical simulation methods and dynamic loading experiments, this study elaborates on the two-stage reaction mechanisms of shock-induced and shock-assisted reactions, the thermo-mechanical-chemical coupling theory and the regulation of reaction thresholds, summarizes penetration depth and crater expansion models, after-effect overpressure and ignition/detonation models, as well as fragment cloud distribution and damage radius models. Additionally, this study outlines equations of state for reactive materials, SPH-ALE multi-physics coupling algorithms, multi-scale modeling methods, multi-physics synchronous diagnostic techniques, and the damage effect evaluation system for typical targets. On this basis, future research directions are discussed: establishing precise control methods for reactivity based on cross-scale coupling models; constructing universal damage assessment models applicable to extreme environments; and developing rapid field testing methods based on characteristic spectra and electromagnetic pulse.

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• Ultrasonic Detection Technology for Solid Rocket Propellant with Laminated Transducers

  Yang Shun-min

  Online:April 08, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025257

  Abstract(11) HTML(18) PDF(1.77 M)( 1)

  Abstract:To address the issue of significant attenuation and strong scattering of ultrasonic waves in solid propellants， which prevents existing ultrasonic transducers from detecting all internal defects， a nondestructive testing research method using ultrasonic laminated transducers is proposed. Based on the research of domestic and international scholars， this study first proposes leveraging the high transmission energy characteristic of laminated transducers to mitigate attenuation and scattering problems during ultrasonic propagation in solid rocket propellants. A 1 MHz four-layer ultrasonic transducer is designed. This transducer converts a planar acoustic field into a cylindrical acoustic field through crystal stacking， thereby enriching echo information and improving defect resolution. Based on acoustic field simulations of the ultrasonic laminated transducer， a 1 MHz four-layer ultrasonic transducer is developed. Experimental comparisons with domestic and international transducers of similar specifications show a 20 dB improvement in gain. Finally， an ultrasonic automated inspection system for solid rocket propellants is established， enabling online inspection of solid rocket propellants. The results indicate that the developed inspection equipment can accurately detect the smallest artificial blind holes measuring Φ1.2 mm × 5 mm （depth） as well as natural inclusion defects， achieving qualitative and quantitative nondestructive testing of all internal defects in solid rocket propellants.

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• Data-Driven Prediction of Slow Cook-off Responses and Formulation Design for Melt-Cast Explosives

  LIU Liu, DAI Xiao-gan, NIE Shao-yun, ZHOU Yang, LI Ming, YING Ming, CHAI Chuan-guo, XIE Xiao

  Online:April 08, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025266

  Abstract(14) HTML(26) PDF(1.39 M)( 2)

  Abstract:Slow cook-off （SCO） response assessment and formulation optimization of melt-cast explosives are challenged by the high cost of experiments and the resulting limited sample size. To address this problem， a data-driven model linking formulation composition to SCO response level was developed. Twenty-two formulations were prepared using a fixed casting process and subsequently evaluated by SCO tests under fixed conditions. The mass fractions of 12 components were used as input features， and the SCO response level was used as the class label. To alleviate minority-class scarcity and class imbalance， SMOTE-based oversampling was applied to construct a class-balanced dataset containing 32 samples for model training and evaluation. Using stratified sampling and three-fold cross-validation， ordinal logistic regression， multinomial logistic regression， random forest， and support vector machine were comparatively evaluated. Component contributions were then analyzed to improve model interpretability. Results show that non-ordinal models outperform ordinal models， and the random forest model achieves the best performance （accuracy 0.79， precision 0.78， and F1-score 0.75）. Misclassifications occur mainly between deflagration and explosion. The feature-importance ranking is broadly consistent with engineering experience， with component IDs C， I， and K identified as dominant， followed by G， A， and H. Based on these findings， a forward design framework termed “profile scanning-small-step validation-model updating” is proposed. By visualizing the variation in predicted SCO response probabilities with component mass fraction， the framework provides decision support for candidate formulation screening and iterative validation through experiments.

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• Numerical Simulation of Vertical Screw Extrusion Process for Thermoplastic High-viscous Materials

  LIN Gao-ming, WANG Su-wei, LIU Xiao-lu, ZHU Lin-yi, LIU Yao, WANG Kang

  Online:March 18, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025242

  Abstract(74) HTML(114) PDF(2.51 M)( 125)

  Abstract:To address the challenges of low automation， high danger， and poor uniformity in conventional charging processes of thermoplastic energetic materials， this study introduced a vertical screw charging technology and established a quantitative comprehensive performance evaluation method to guide process optimization， aiming to systematically enhance process efficiency， charging quality， and operational safety. Based on an analysis of the viscoelastic properties of the slurry， the rheological behavior of the slurry during extrusion under different process conditions and formulation components was simulated， and the formation mechanisms of high-temperature and high-pressure hot spots were investigated. The results show that increasing the solid content mass fraction from 75% to 85% significantly reduces the slurry flowability， with increases in flow field pressure and shear stress by 827% and 600%， respectively， and an increase in viscous heating by 384 kW·m^-3. These changes intensify the thermo-mechanical coupling behavior during screw extrusion， reduce process safety， and raise the process risk coefficient from 0.99 to 3.36. However， by adjusting the screw speed （within the range of 10 r·min^-1 to 30 r·min^-1） and incorporating metal particles to enhance the thermal conduction network among the barrel， slurry， and screw， the temperature fluctuation range can be reduced by 0.8 ℃ to 1.9 ℃， effectively suppressing the formation of local hot spots.

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• Development and Multidimensional Evaluation Framework of Aroylhydrazone-Based Gel Fuels

  LIU Jin-ming, ZHAO Xin, LI Wei, E Xiu-tian-feng

  Online:March 17, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026002

  Abstract(115) HTML(164) PDF(2.42 M)( 156)

  Abstract:To investigate the effect of low-molecule-weight gelators on the overall performance of gel fuels， five acylhydrazone-based low-molecular-weight gelators were designed and synthesized. Kerosene gel fuels were prepared using the heating-cooling method， and the gelation mechanism was examined. A comprehensive evaluation system for gelator performance was established based on six parameters： the minimum addition amount of gelators （A）， the phase transition temperature （T_g）， the physicochemical stability （S_pc）， the loss rate of energy density （E_loss）， the shear thinning capacity （S_thin） and the resetting property （R）. The results showed that all gelators could form three-dimensional network structures through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds and π-π conjugation， effectively confining kerosene molecules. Their gel fuels exhibited thermal reversibility （T_g = 50-80 ℃） and had good physical and chemical stability and shear thinning behavior. Among them， L18 gelator had the lowest minimum addition amount （3.1%） and the fastest gelation speed （15 s）. L5 gelator had the best physical and chemical stability and the mass retention rate was 97.5% at a high centrifugal speed of 10000 r·min^-1. L16 gelator had the strongest shear thinning ability， with a viscosity of only 34.72 mPa·s after shearing. The conclusion indicated that based on the multi-dimensional performance evaluation system established by the institute， L16 and L18 gelators demonstrated significant comprehensive advantages.

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• Curing Reaction Characteristics of HTPB/IPDI Energetic Composite Slurry

  YANG Li-jie, ZHAI Jin-xian, XING Zi-han, TONG Tian-lin

  Online:March 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025270

  Abstract(93) HTML(212) PDF(1.40 M)( 239)

  Abstract:To reveal the curing reaction characteristics of polyurethane-crosslinked energetic composite slurry， this study derived the curing kinetic equations for the HTPB/IPDI system based on the evolution of characteristic functional groups monitored by in-situ ATR-FTIR spectroscopy during the curing process. The evolution of characteristic groups was monitored at 45 ℃， 50 ℃， 55 ℃， 60 ℃ and 65 ℃. Using the derived equations， kinetic curves for the slurry curing reaction were constructed， and the apparent activation energy was determined. The results indicate a two-stage curing process. The first stage corresponds to the pre-gelation period， with an apparent activation energy （E_a1） of 69.83±5.54 kJ·mol^-1. The second stage corresponds to the post-gelation curing period， with an apparent activation energy （E_a2） of 71.31±4.45 kJ·mol^-1. The apparent activation energy for the HTPB/IPDI energetic composite slurry is significantly higher than that of a homogeneous HTPB/IPDI mixture.

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• Analysis Method of Hydroxylammonium Nitrate-Based Propellant Based on Molecular Spectroscopy Multivariate Calibration Technology

  MENG Xing, ZHEN Jiang-tao, XU Lin-nan, LI Jun

  Online:March 09, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025255

  Abstract(86) HTML(176) PDF(1.10 M)( 217)

  Abstract:To achieve one-step determination of component contents in hydroxylammonium nitrate-based propellants （HAN-based propellant） and address issues like complex procedures and long analysis cycles of existing methods， molecular spectroscopy multivariate calibration technology was employed to develop the analytical method for such propellants. Near-infrared （NIR） spectra of prepared HAN-based propellant samples were acquired. Using partial least squares （PLS）， the optimal spectral pretreatment methods， spectral regions， and number of principal components （NPC） were selected， and outliers were eliminated. Separate NIR quantitative analysis models were established for the four main components in the propellant： hydroxylammonium nitrate， nitrate A， additive B and additive C. All established models exhibit excellent performance. The correlation coefficients of the calibration set （RC） are all above 0.997， and those of the validation set （RP） are all above 0.990. The standard error of calibration （SEC） is below 0.06 for all models， and the standard error of prediction （SEP） is below 0.09. Additionally， the ratio of SEP to SEC is less than 2 for each model. The results show that the NIR method has good consistency with manual titration and gas chromatography （GC）. The test deviations of the four components are all less than 0.10%. The NIR method also demonstrates high precision. The standard deviations （SD） of repeated tests for hydroxylammonium nitrate and nitrate A are less than 0.10%. For additive B and additive C， the SD of repeated tests are less than 0.03%. The established quantitative analysis models and method enable simple， rapid and one-step determination of component contents in HAN-based propellants.

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• Research Progress on On-Site Rapid Detection Technology for Gunshot Residue

  PENG Guo-bin, ZHAO Peng-cheng, DUAN Jia-he, SONG Hui, NAN Ce

  Online:February 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025259

  Abstract(177) HTML(220) PDF(2.17 M)( 459)

  Abstract:Gunshot residue （GSR） is a trace particle formed during the firing of a bullets. As an important research subject in forensic science， it plays a key role in the investigation of gun-related cases. Currently， conventional GSR detection mainly relies on large laboratory instruments. However， due to the complexity of sample pretreatment and the longthy submission process， it is difficult to provide analysis results quickly， thereby affecting the decision-making efficiency of on-site investigation work. In recent years， GSR on-site rapid detection technology has received widespread attention due to its simple operation， low cost， and portability. This type of technology can be directly implemented at the crime scene without relying on large precison instruments ， and can quickly output detection results. It is suitable for the preliminary screening of GSR and can also be used as the final confirmation detection method， and has become a research hotspot in this field. Therefore， a systematic review of the research progress on-site rapid detection technology for GSR is conducted， focusing on introducing five categories of methods： colorimetric methods， spectroscopic methods， mass spectrometry methods， electrochemical methods， and fluorescent labeling methods. Their advantages and limitations are thoroughly analyzed， and they are compared with the practical applications of laboratory detection technology. Finally， future research development directions are proposed， aiming to provide theoretical basis and methodological references for on-site technicians in actual detection work.

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• Machine Learning-Enabled Synthesis of Energetic Materials： Progress and Challenges

  DOU Kai-le, ZHAO Wei-bo, HE Chun-lin, ZHANG Lei, PANG Si-ping

  Online:February 03, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025237

  Abstract(234) HTML(368) PDF(2.75 M)( 567)

  Abstract:Energetic materials have attracted significant attention due to their critical roles in national defense， aerospace， and specialized engineering applications. However， their research and development are hindered by high experimental costs， safety risks， and lengthy synthesis cycles， which greatly limit the rapid iteration and practical deployment of novel energetic compounds. In recent years， machine learning （ML） has emerged as a powerful tool in chemistry and materials science owing to its strong capabilities in data modeling and prediction. This review summarizes the latest advances in machine learning–assisted chemical synthesis， focusing on three major aspects： reaction prediction， synthesis route planning， and automated synthesis. Particular emphasis is placed on the potential value and limitations of applying ML techniques to energetic material synthesis. The key challenges—such as data scarcity and inconsistency， lack of safety evaluation frameworks， and limited experimental validation and model retraining—are also discussed. Finally， the review outlines future perspectives， including the establishment of standardized and shareable databases， and the development of high-throughput and automated experimental platforms tailored for energetic systems. This work aims to provide theoretical insights and methodological support for achieving efficient and intelligent synthesis of energetic materials.

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• Research Progress and Application Challenges of PTFE-Based Reactive Materials

  LI Xiang, ZHAO Kong-xun, LI Shun, LIU Kai, YANG Hong-tai, XU Chun-jing, XUAN Yu, REN Liang, LIU Gui-tao

  Online:January 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025221

  Abstract(303) HTML(580) PDF(1.71 M)( 1036)

  Abstract:Polytetrafluoroethylene （PTFE）-based reactive materials have emerged as pivotal candidates for enhancing warhead lethality due to their high reactivity and strong post-detonation effects， garnering significant attention in the field of high-efficiency destruction. Component modification serves as a critical technique for optimizing the performance of such materials， where the introduction of various additive components can effectively regulate the mechanical strength and energy release characteristics of PTFE-based composites. This review systematically summarizes and compares research progress and functional features of modification systems， including reactive components， inert components， and metal hydrides. It focuses on elucidating the mechanisms by which metal hydrides modification systems synergistically enhance the dynamic mechanical properties and impact-induced energy release characteristics through the “decomposition-hydrogen release- in-situ reinforcement- multi-path reaction coupling”mechanism. Building upon this foundation， the review analyzes current challenges in hydride stability， process compatibility， and cost reduction， while also outlining future research directions such as the development of novel coating materials and advancements in advanced forming technologies.

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• Research Progress and Application Challenges of PTFE-Based Reactive Materials

  LI Xiang, ZHAO Kong-xun, LI Shun, LIU Kai, YANG Hong-tai, XU Chun-jing, XUAN Yu, REN Liang, LIU Gui-tao

  Online:January 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025221

  Abstract(303) HTML(580) PDF( 1036)

  Abstract:Polytetrafluoroethylene （PTFE）-based reactive materials have emerged as pivotal candidates for enhancing warhead lethality due to their high reactivity and strong post-detonation effects， garnering significant attention in the field of high-efficiency destruction. Component modification serves as a critical technique for optimizing the performance of such materials， where the introduction of various additive components can effectively regulate the mechanical strength and energy release characteristics of PTFE-based composites. This review systematically summarizes and compares research progress and functional features of modification systems， including reactive components， inert components， and metal hydrides. It focuses on elucidating the mechanisms by which metal hydrides modification systems synergistically enhance the dynamic mechanical properties and impact-induced energy release characteristics through the “decomposition-hydrogen release- in-situ reinforcement- multi-path reaction coupling”mechanism. Building upon this foundation， the review analyzes current challenges in hydride stability， process compatibility， and cost reduction， while also outlining future research directions such as the development of novel coating materials and advancements in advanced forming technologies.

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• Development and Multidimensional Evaluation Framework of Aroylhydrazone-Based Gel Fuels

  LIU Jin-ming, ZHAO Xin, LI Wei, E Xiu-tian-feng

  Online:March 17, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026002

  Abstract(115) HTML(164) PDF( 156)

  Abstract:To investigate the effect of low-molecule-weight gelators on the overall performance of gel fuels， five acylhydrazone-based low-molecular-weight gelators were designed and synthesized. Kerosene gel fuels were prepared using the heating-cooling method， and the gelation mechanism was examined. A comprehensive evaluation system for gelator performance was established based on six parameters： the minimum addition amount of gelators （A）， the phase transition temperature （T_g）， the physicochemical stability （S_pc）， the loss rate of energy density （E_loss）， the shear thinning capacity （S_thin） and the resetting property （R）. The results showed that all gelators could form three-dimensional network structures through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds and π-π conjugation， effectively confining kerosene molecules. Their gel fuels exhibited thermal reversibility （T_g = 50-80 ℃） and had good physical and chemical stability and shear thinning behavior. Among them， L18 gelator had the lowest minimum addition amount （3.1%） and the fastest gelation speed （15 s）. L5 gelator had the best physical and chemical stability and the mass retention rate was 97.5% at a high centrifugal speed of 10000 r·min^-1. L16 gelator had the strongest shear thinning ability， with a viscosity of only 34.72 mPa·s after shearing. The conclusion indicated that based on the multi-dimensional performance evaluation system established by the institute， L16 and L18 gelators demonstrated significant comprehensive advantages.

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• Analysis Method of Hydroxylammonium Nitrate-Based Propellant Based on Molecular Spectroscopy Multivariate Calibration Technology

  MENG Xing, ZHEN Jiang-tao, XU Lin-nan, LI Jun

  Online:March 09, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025255

  Abstract(86) HTML(176) PDF( 217)

  Abstract:To achieve one-step determination of component contents in hydroxylammonium nitrate-based propellants （HAN-based propellant） and address issues like complex procedures and long analysis cycles of existing methods， molecular spectroscopy multivariate calibration technology was employed to develop the analytical method for such propellants. Near-infrared （NIR） spectra of prepared HAN-based propellant samples were acquired. Using partial least squares （PLS）， the optimal spectral pretreatment methods， spectral regions， and number of principal components （NPC） were selected， and outliers were eliminated. Separate NIR quantitative analysis models were established for the four main components in the propellant： hydroxylammonium nitrate， nitrate A， additive B and additive C. All established models exhibit excellent performance. The correlation coefficients of the calibration set （RC） are all above 0.997， and those of the validation set （RP） are all above 0.990. The standard error of calibration （SEC） is below 0.06 for all models， and the standard error of prediction （SEP） is below 0.09. Additionally， the ratio of SEP to SEC is less than 2 for each model. The results show that the NIR method has good consistency with manual titration and gas chromatography （GC）. The test deviations of the four components are all less than 0.10%. The NIR method also demonstrates high precision. The standard deviations （SD） of repeated tests for hydroxylammonium nitrate and nitrate A are less than 0.10%. For additive B and additive C， the SD of repeated tests are less than 0.03%. The established quantitative analysis models and method enable simple， rapid and one-step determination of component contents in HAN-based propellants.

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• Curing Reaction Characteristics of HTPB/IPDI Energetic Composite Slurry

  YANG Li-jie, ZHAI Jin-xian, XING Zi-han, TONG Tian-lin

  Online:March 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025270

  Abstract(93) HTML(212) PDF( 239)

  Abstract:To reveal the curing reaction characteristics of polyurethane-crosslinked energetic composite slurry， this study derived the curing kinetic equations for the HTPB/IPDI system based on the evolution of characteristic functional groups monitored by in-situ ATR-FTIR spectroscopy during the curing process. The evolution of characteristic groups was monitored at 45 ℃， 50 ℃， 55 ℃， 60 ℃ and 65 ℃. Using the derived equations， kinetic curves for the slurry curing reaction were constructed， and the apparent activation energy was determined. The results indicate a two-stage curing process. The first stage corresponds to the pre-gelation period， with an apparent activation energy （E_a1） of 69.83±5.54 kJ·mol^-1. The second stage corresponds to the post-gelation curing period， with an apparent activation energy （E_a2） of 71.31±4.45 kJ·mol^-1. The apparent activation energy for the HTPB/IPDI energetic composite slurry is significantly higher than that of a homogeneous HTPB/IPDI mixture.

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Vol, 34, No.3, 2026     Preparation of Energetic Materials

>Editorial

• 专题导言： 含能材料创制

  YANG Hong-wei

  2026,34(3):214-214, DOI:

  Abstract(102) HTML(17) PDF(1.04 M)( 52)

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>Energetic Express

• 含能快递-2025年第3期

  YANG Hong-wei

  2026,34(3):215-216, DOI:

  Abstract(89) HTML(27) PDF(674.61 K)( 50)

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>Perspective

• Development Strategies for High⁃energy and Heat⁃resistant Energetic Materials

  YANG Hong-wei

  2026,34(3):217-219, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026050

  Abstract(114) HTML(30) PDF(632.66 K)( 79)

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>Research Articles

• Design， Synthesis and Properties of Energetic Salts Based on Pyrazolo［1，5-d］tetrazole Fused-Ring Scaffolds

  ZHU Wen-chao, DING Ning, XU Xu-dong, JIANG Yan-da, SUN Qi, LI Sheng-hua

  2026,34(3):220-228, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026030

  Abstract(71) HTML(27) PDF(1.49 M)( 49)

  Abstract:Two energetic salts based on the pyrazolo［1，5-d］tetrazole fused skeleton， namely 6-azido-7-nitropyrazolo［1，5-d］tetrazolium ammonium salt （4） and 6-amino-7-nitropyrazolo［1，5-d］tetrazolium hydrazinium salt （5）， were synthesized via a three-step reaction using 4，6-dichloro-5-nitropyrimidine as the starting material. Their chemical structures were fully confirmed by Fourier transform infrared （FT-IR） spectroscopy， nuclear magnetic resonance （¹H NMR， ¹³C NMR） spectroscopy， elemental analysis， and X-ray single-crystal diffraction. The results indicate that the addition of aqueous ammonia and hydrazine hydrate promotes the in-situ cyclization of the ortho-azido group in 3，5-diazido-4-nitropyrazole （3）， thereby constructing the pyrazolo-tetrazole fused skeleton. Concurrently， hydrazine hydrate reduces the azido group not involved in the cyclization to an amino group. Based on calculations using the Gaussian 16 program， the formation enthalpies of compounds 4 and 5 are 666.0 kJ·mol^-1 and 461.9 kJ·mol^-1， respectively. The detonation velocities （D） and detonation pressures （p） calculated by the EXPLO 5 software are 8617 m·s^-1 and 28.8 GPa for compound 4， and 8789 m·s^-1 and 28.4 GPa for compound 5. According to the BAM standard test methods， the impact sensitivities （IS） of compounds 4 and 5 are determined to be 1 J and 10 J， while their friction sensitivities （FS） are 5 N and 120 N， respectively.

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• Synthesis and Characterization of Nitromethyl-Substituted Bitetrazole Energetic Compounds

  YU Xue-zhi, CHENG Guang-bin, YANG Hong-wei

  2026,34(3):229-234, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026048

  Abstract(73) HTML(7) PDF(963.47 K)( 45)

  Abstract:Bistetrazole has become a research focus in the field of energetic materials due to its 80% nitrogen content and excellent detonation performance. However， its poor stability seriously restricts practical engineering applications. In this work， 5，5''-bistetrazole diammonium salt was used as the starting material， and bromonitromethane was grafted onto the bistetrazole skeleton via nucleophilic substitution reaction. A novel nitromethyl-substituted bistetrazole energetic compound 1 with significantly improved stability， which can be potentially used in eutectic systems， was successfully synthesized. The structure of compound 1 was characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy（NMR）， elemental analysis（EA）， and infrared spectroscopy （IR）. Its precise crystal structure was further determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction： the compound crystallizes in the monoclinic system， space group C2/c， with cell parameter Z = 8 and crystal density 1.683 g·cm^-3. Performance test results show that compound 1 exhibits an impact sensitivity of 15 J， friction sensitivity of 324 N， detonation velocity of 8325 m·s^-1， and detonation pressure of 28.4 GPa， demonstrating superior overall performance compared to TNT （D_v = 6881 m·s^-1， p = 19.5 GPa， IS = 15 J， FS = 353 N）.

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• Preparation and Properties of 3-（4-Nitropyrazol-1-yl）-7-（N-methyl）nitramino-［1，2，4］triazolo［1，5-b］［1，2，4，5］tetrazine

  FENG Ke, JIANG Tian-yu, CHEN Si-tong, ZHANG Wen-quan

  2026,34(3):235-240, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026032

  Abstract(49) HTML(13) PDF(933.33 K)( 36)

  Abstract:High-nitrogen polycyclic frameworks， owing to their high nitrogen content and favorable oxygen balance， have attracted considerable attention as promising scaffolds for the development of novel high-energy energetic compounds. A novel high-nitrogen polycyclic nitramine energetic compound， 3-（4-nitropyrazol-1-yl）-7-（N-methylnitramino）-［1，2，4］triazolo［1，5-b］［1，2，4，5］tetrazine （compound 4）， was synthesized via a three-step reaction based on the ［1，2，4］triazolo［1，5-b］［1，2，4，5］tetrazine scaffold. The chemical structure of compound 4 was fully characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy （NMR）， high-resolution mass spectrometry （HRMS）， and infrared spectroscopy （IR）. Single crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction were obtained by slow solvent evaporation， and the crystal structure was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Results show that compound 4 crystallizes in the orthorhombic crystal system with the Pbca space group and exhibits a layered stacking structure with a room-temperature density of 1.701 g·cm^-3. Thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry （TG-DSC） analysis reveals that the compound possesses a thermal decomposition temperature of 167 ℃. Calculations using the EXPLO5 software demonstrate that its theoretical detonation velocity and detonation pressure reach 8078 m·s^-1 and 25.2 GPa， respectively. Additionally， the impact and friction sensitivities of compound 4， determined by the BAM standard method， are 9 J and 180 N， respectively.

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• Synthesis and Properties of Energetic Compounds Based on 1，2，5-Oxadiazole-bridged Bis（1，2，4-oxadiazole）

  ZHU Teng, TANG Jie, CHENG Guang-bin, YANG Hong-wei

  2026,34(3):241-248, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025231

  Abstract(46) HTML(10) PDF(1.29 M)( 44)

  Abstract:Furoxan has been extensively studied due to its high energy provided by potential “nitro” fragment， but the relatively poor stability limits its practical applications. A novel energetic compound， 3，3''-（1，2，5-oxadiazole-3，4-diyl）bis（1，2，4-oxadiazol-5-amine）（1）， was synthesized from dicyanofuroxan via a three-step procedure involving reduction， oximation， and cyclization-dehydration reactions. Subsequent nitration of 1 afforded 3-（4-（5-amino-1，2，4-oxadiazol-3-yl）-1，2，5-oxadiazol-3-yl）-1，2，4-oxadiazol-5（4H）-one（2）. The structures of both compounds were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR） spectroscopy， elemental analysis （EA）， infrared （IR） spectroscopy， and single crystal X-ray diffraction analyses. Results show that compound 1 crystallizes in orthorhombic crystal system， space group Pbcn， Z = 4， with a crystal density of 1.825 g·cm⁻³. The trihydrate of compound 2·3H₂O crystallizes in triclinic crystal system， space group P1， Z = 2， with a crystal density of 1.641 g·cm^-3 Both compounds exhibit high insensitivity to mechanical stimuli， with impact sensitivity >40 J and friction sensitivity >360 N. Their calculated detonation velocity （7921 m·s^-1 for 1 and 7660 m·s^-1 for 2） and detonation pressure （22.4 GPa for 1 and 20.5 GPa for 2） are superior to those of TNT （6881 m·s^-1， 19.5 GPa）.

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• One-step Synthesis of Thermally Stable and Insensitive Energetic Molecule 2-Amino-3，6-dinitropyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine

  YU Long-xin, CAI Zi-wu, JIANG Tian-yu, CAO Yu-teng, ZHANG Wen-quan

  2026,34(3):249-255, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025262

  Abstract(60) HTML(22) PDF(1.35 M)( 37)

  Abstract:Nitrogen-rich fused-ring energetic molecules have gained extensive attention in the field of energetic material due to their high nitrogen content， high enthalpy of formation， and extensive conjugated structures， which enable a better balance between energy and safety. Nevertheless， their synthetic routes are often relatively cumbersome， involving skeleton construction and functional group introduction. In this work， starting from commercially available 4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3，5-diamine and sodium nitromalonaldehyde， the fused bicyclic energetic molecule 2-amino-3，6-dinitropyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （1） was synthesized in a one-step reaction with a high yield of 89.3%. The target compound was characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance， infrared spectroscopy， and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Compound 1 crystallizes in the monoclinic space group C2/c with a measured density of 1.774 g·cm^-3 at room temperature. Its detonation performance was calculated by EXPLO5 software， its thermal decomposition temperature and mechanical sensitivity were evaluated by thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry and impact/friction sensitivity tests. The results indicates that compound 1 possesses an onset decomposition temperature of 303 ℃， based on measured density， a calculated detonation velocity of 7680 m·s^-1， and a detonation pressure of 22.7 GPa. Its impact sensitivity is better than 60 J， and friction sensitivity is greater than 360 N， demonstrating that it is a thermally stable and insensitive explosive molecule with potential application value.

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• Synthesis and Properties of Energetic Compounds with Tetrazole Combined Fused Ring Structures

  ZHANG Guo-jie, TAN Lei, DENG Qi-ye, CHEN Hong-wei, YANG Ya-lin, QIN Yi-feng, WU Bo

  2026,34(3):256-265, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025247

  Abstract(62) HTML(20) PDF(1.40 M)( 42)

  Abstract:Two neutral energetic compounds， 3-nitro-7-amino-6-（1H-tetrazol-5-yl）pyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （3） and 2-nitramino-7-amino-6-（1H-tetrazol-5-yl）-［1，2，4］triazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （4）， were synthesized via nitration of tetrazole combined fused-ring pyrazolo-pyrimidine and tetrazole combined fused-ring triazolo-pyrimidine. By exploiting the basicity of nitrogen atoms in the pyrimidine ring， nitrate （5， 7） and perchlorate （6， 8） salts were subsequently obtained through proton transfer reactions. The structures of the compounds were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy （¹H and ¹³C NMR）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， and elemental analysis （EA）. Single crystals of compounds 5 and 7 were obtained by solvent evaporation， and their crystal structures characterized confirmed by X-ray single-crystal diffraction. Furthermore， their physicochemical properties and mechanical sensitivity were assessed through gas pycnometer， differential scanning calorimetry （DSC）， impact sensitivity/friction sensitivity tests， alongside theoretical calculations of their heat of formation and detonation performance. The results indicate that compounds 4-8 exhibit detonation velocities ranging from 7870 to 8471 m‧s^-1， and detonation pressures from 23.1 to 30.7 GPa， which are superior to that of TNT （D_v： 6881 m‧s^-1， p： 19.5 GPa）. The detonation performance of the nitrate （5， 7） and perchlorate （6， 8） salts surpasses that of their corresponding neutral compounds 3 and 4. Notably， the perchlorate salt （compound 8： D_v： 8471 m‧s^-1， p： 30.7 GPa） exhibits the most outstanding detonation performance. This study demonstrates that constructing tetrazole-fused structures containing basic nitrogen sites， followed by introducing oxygen-rich energetic anions through proton transfer， is an effective strategy for tuning the detonation properties of energetic materials.

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• New Synthetic Methodology and Performance of 4，6-Dinitro-5，7-Diaminobenzofuroxan

  YANG Lei, DU Wei, LI Jin-shan, MA Qing

  2026,34(3):266-274, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025243

  Abstract(48) HTML(8) PDF(1.38 M)( 41)

  Abstract:To address the issues of incomplete amination and difficult removal of acidic impurities in the existing synthetic methods of 4，6-dinitro-5，7-diaminobenzofuroxan （CL-14）， a novel synthetic route for CL-14 was developed. Starting from 1-chloro-3，5-dimethoxybenzene （1）， CL-14 was synthesized via a three-step process involving nitration， azidation/dediazotization， and amination. The effects of molar ratio， reaction temperature， reaction time， and solvent type on the yields of 1-chloro-3，5-dimethoxy-2，4，6-trinitrobenzene （2）， 5，7-dimethoxy-4，6-dinitrobenzofuroxan （3）， and CL-14 were investigated. Meanwhile， CL-14·DMSO single crystals were successfully cultivated by temperature-programmed crystallization. The crystal belongs to the monoclinic system with the P2₁/n space group. The short-pulse shock initiation performance of CL-14 was tested using the Neyer D-optimality method， and the initiation threshold voltage was 1223 V， indicating a favorable shock initiation sensitivity. Under the optimized reaction conditions， the overall yield of CL-14 synthesized from starting material 1 via the three-step route was 45%， with a purity of ≥97%.

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• Preparation and Performance of Anti-hygroscopic ADN/HMTA Cocrystal

  ZHANG Yong-ting, WANG Ying, XIA Hong-lei, ZHANG Qing-hua

  2026,34(3):275-283, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025230

  Abstract(76) HTML(12) PDF(1.81 M)( 56)

  Abstract:To address the issue of the strong hygroscopicity of green high-energy oxidant ammonium dinitramide （ADN） limiting its engineering application， an ADN/hexamethylenetetramine （HMTA） cocrystal was prepared and its properties were studied. The cocrystal was synthesized using the solvent evaporation method. Its crystal structure， purity， thermal properties， energetic performance， mechanical sensitivity， and hygroscopicity were systematically characterized by single crystal X-ray diffraction （SC-XRD）， powder X-ray diffraction （PXRD）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， elemental analysis （EA）， simultaneous thermal analysis （TG-DSC）， oxygen bomb calorimetry， BAM impact/friction sensitivity tests and hygroscopicity tests. The 2D fingerprint was constructed with Crystalexplorer to study its intermolecular interactions. Results show that the asymmetric unit of the cocrystal contains two ADN molecules and one HMTA molecule， belonging to monoclinic crystal system with C2/c space group， and has a density of 1.564 g·cm^-3. The analysis of intermolecular interactions confirms the formation of N─H…N hydrogen bonds with shorter bond length and greater strength in the cocrystal. The cocrystal is a pure phase with a molar ratio of ADN and HMTA of 2∶1 from XRD and EA analysis. The melting point and initial decomposition temperature of the cocrystal are 130.2 ℃ and 168.5 ℃， which are 38.8 ℃ and 14.3 ℃ higher than that of ADN. The formation enthalpy of the cocrystal is -492.55 kJ·mol^-1， the theoretical specific impulse value is 201.07 s， the detonation velocity and pressure are 7854 m·s^-1 and 20.72 GPa， respectively. The friction and impact sensitivity of the cocrystal are 288 N and above 50 J， both higher than those of ADN. The hygroscopicity rate of the cocrystal is 0 after 153 h at 25 ℃ and 70% relative humidity， for ADN the hygroscopicity rate reaches to 20.95% after 48 h. The preparation of ADN/HMTA cocrystal effectively solves the problem of strong hygroscopicity of ADN.

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• Construction of Tricyclo［3.3.1.0³^，⁷］nonane-2，6-dione and Synthesis of Tetranitro-derivative

  ZHU Long, ZHOU Qi, LI Huan, LI Bing, LUO Jun

  2026,34(3):284-291, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025240

  Abstract(36) HTML(8) PDF(1.04 M)( 37)

  Abstract:A novel cage-like compound tricyclo［3.3.1.0³^，⁷］nonane-2，6-dione was synthesized from bicyclic［3.3.1］non-2，6-dione through bromination， cyclization and reductive debromination. Its energetic derivative 2，2，6，6-tetranitrotricyclo［3.3.1.0³^，⁷］nonane was prepared via oximation and gem-dinitration. The structure of target compound was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR）， elemental analysis （EA）， and single crystal X-ray diffraction （SC-XRD）. The thermal stability was studied by differential scanning calorimetry （DSC） and thermogravimetric analysis （TG）. The detonation performances were predicted by EXPLO5. Results show that 2，2，6，6-tetranitrotrycyclo［3.3.1.0³^，⁷］nonane crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system， space group P2/n with a crystal density of 1.691 g∙cm^-3. Its onset thermal decomposition temperature is 186 ℃. The theoretical detonation velocity and detonation pressure are 7319 m·s^-1 and 21.57 GPa， respectively， which are much higher than that of its adamantane-based homologue 2，2，6，6-tetranitroadamantane.

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• Preparation and Performance of Novel Ionic Ferrocene-Based Combustion Catalysts

  ZHANG Qiang, WANG Hai-feng, YAO Ya-peng, ZHOU Yuan-lin, SUN Nan, WANG Kang-cai

  2026,34(3):292-300, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026033

  Abstract(75) HTML(12) PDF(2.06 M)( 48)

  Abstract:In this study， two ferrocene-based catalysts， ［FcCH₂N（CH₃）₃⁺］［PbCl₃^-］·CH₃CN （1） and ［FcCH₂N（CH₃）₃⁺］₅［BF₄^-］₄［I^-］ （2） （where Fc= Ferrocene）， were selected as the research objects to systematically investigate and evaluate their regulatory effects on the combustion performance of solid propellants.TG-DSC tests revealed that both catalysts exhibit excellent thermal stability， with decomposition temperatures of 433.3 ℃ and 481.6 ℃， respectively. The catalytic effect of the two compounds on the thermal decomposition of ammonium perchlorate （AP） was studied via DSC. When the mass fraction of the added catalyst was 3%， compounds 1 and 2 reduced the thermal decomposition temperature of AP by 48.9 ℃ and 61.1 ℃， respectively. To further verify the practical application efficiency of the catalysts， their catalytic performance was evaluated based on a hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene （HTPB） solid propellant formulation. When compounds 1 and 2 were incorporated into the formulation as combustion catalysts at a mass fraction of 2.5% respectively， the burning rate of the propellant increased from 4.06 mm·s^-1 to 8.99 mm·s^-1 and 9.06 mm·s^-1 under a combustion chamber pressure of 3 MPa. Within the pressure range of 3-10 MPa， the pressure exponent of the propellant decreased from 0.32 to 0.24 and 0.16， respectively.In summary， compound 2 possesses outstanding combustion catalytic performance and holds potential application prospects in high-performance solid propellant systems.

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• Crystal Structure Determination and Thermal Decomposition Kinetics of the Novel Energetic Material TYX-2

  WANG Shuai, DOU Jin-kang, TANG Chang-wei, ZHANG Jing, Gao Min, TAN Bo-jun, LIU Ning

  2026,34(3):301-309, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026046

  Abstract(89) HTML(11) PDF(1.66 M)( 49)

  Abstract:A novel energetic material， 2，7-bis（nitroamino）bis（［1，2，4］triazolo）［1，5-b：1′，5′-e］［1，2，4，5］tetrazine-5，10-diium-3，8-diide （TYX-2）， has attracted considerable interest due to its potential for combining high energy output with low sensitivity. However， the authentic crystal structure of its neutral form remained unknown， which has hindered a thorough understanding of its intrinsic properties. High-quality single crystals of the neutral solvate TYX-2·2（C₃H₆O） were successfully obtained using an acetone/n-hexane anti-solvent method. Its crystal structure was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffractometry （SC-XRD）， and its thermal decomposition behavior was analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry （DSC） and thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （TG-MS-FTIR）. Crystal structure analysis reveals that TYX-2·2（C₃H₆O） crystal belongs to the monoclinic system， with space group P2₁/n. The unit cell parameters are a = 10.6102（6） Å， b = 6.7134（4） Å， c = 12.3101（7） Å， and the crystal density is 1.509 g·cm^-3. TYX-2 molecules construct a stable three-dimensional supramolecular framework through extensive hydrogen bonds and significant π-π stacking interactions. Thermal analysis results indicate that the thermal decomposition peak temperature of TYX-2 is 217.5 ℃ at a heating rate of 10.0 ℃·min^-1. Its decomposition process exhibits typical autocatalytic behavior. The main gaseous decomposition products are CO₂， N₂O， HCNO， CO， and NO₂. The apparent activation energies calculated by the Kissinger method and the combined kinetic analysis method are 380.04 kJ·mol^-1 and 302.40 kJ·mol^-1， respectively. The initial stage of its solid-state thermal decomposition conforms to a two-dimensional diffusion （D2） model， which subsequently transitions to chemical reaction control.

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• Structural Evolution and Amorphization Behavior of α-Lead Azide under Static High Pressure

  ZHANG Hong, CAO Ye, HUANG Qi, ZHANG Wen-quan, QI Guang-yu

  2026,34(3):310-315, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026034

  Abstract(76) HTML(17) PDF(1.10 M)( 39)

  Abstract:Under extreme high-pressure conditions， the state， crystal phase， and microstructure of explosives may undergo transformations upon impact， thereby affecting the stability and safety of weapon systems. This work focuses on the structural evolution and stability of primary explosives under extreme high pressure， with α-lead azide as the research object. Static high-pressure structural evolution was investigated by diamond anvil cell technique， in situ high-pressure synchrotron X-ray diffraction， and in situ high-pressure Raman scattering spectroscopy. The experimental results show that within the pressure range from ambient pressure to 26.6 GPa， no new diffraction or Raman peaks emerge， confirming that α-lead azide undergoes no structural phase transition. With increasing pressure， however， the spectral peaks gradually broaden and eventually disappear， indicating pressure-induced amorphization of α-lead azide. Further analysis demonstrates that α-lead azide exhibits anisotropic compression. The a- and b-axes show similar and relatively small compressibility， whereas the compression rate along the c-axis is significantly higher. The enhanced dense packing under high pressure is mainly attributed to compression along the c-axis. After full pressure quenching， the spectra do not recover to the initial state， indicating that the pressure-induced amorphization is irreversible. Such irreversible amorphization is attributed to the deformation of azide anions.

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>Reviews

• Research Progress on Thermal Decomposition of PBX Explosives

  HUANG Meng, ZHOU Jing, TANG Qiu-fan, ZHANG Jun-lin, WANG Xiao-feng

  2026,34(3):316-331, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025241

  Abstract(97) HTML(28) PDF(2.19 M)( 56)

  Abstract:The thermal decomposition of polymer-bonded explosives （PBX） under complex service environments represents a quintessential multiscale， multiphysics challenge. While progress has been made at individual scales， current research remains fragmented， lacking a cohesive framework that integrates molecular chemistry， mesoscopic damage evolution， and macroscopic thermo-mechanical response. This review systematically synthesizes the state-of-the-art in PBX thermal decomposition， covering methodologies， applications， and critical influencing factors. The key frontiers for future research were identified， including high-spatiotemporal-resolution in situ characterization， multiscale predictive modeling， and decomposition kinetics under confinement. Ultimately， developing physics-based life prediction models is pivotal for accurately assessing munition health and guiding the design of robust， aging-resistant formulations.

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