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ZHANG Zi-xuan, WANG Zhi-hao, CHU Xing-rong, LIU Gui-tao, ZHAO Kong-xun
Online:June 26, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026043
Abstract:Reactive materials possess distinctive impact-induced reaction characteristics， enabling them to undergo chemical reactions and release substantial energy under high-velocity impact. Owing to their excellent energy-release performance， reactive damage materials have become one of the key material systems for enhancing the overall lethality of warheads. To achieve optimized design and performance regulation of such materials， appropriate characterization methods and reliable numerical simulation techniques are essential. Through accurate characterization and dependable simulation， the mechanical response and chemical energy-release mechanisms of these materials under impact loading can be effectively revealed， thereby providing guidance for performance optimization. This paper focuses on four typical categories of reactive materials， namely thermite-type reactive materials， metal/polymer composite reactive materials， metal/metal composite reactive materials， and reactive alloys， and systematically reviews their classification features and research status. Emphasis is placed on studies of experimental characterization methods for dynamic mechanical properties， impact-induced energy-release response characterization， constitutive modeling， and numerical simulation methods. By considering the compositional characteristics and response mechanisms of different material systems， the applicability of experimental methods such as drop-hammer impact， ballistic impact， pressure chamber testing， split Hopkinson pressure bar testing， and plate impact testing in characterizing mechanical response， reaction initiation， energy-release output， and damage aftereffects is analyzed. In addition， the applications of typical constitutive models， equations of state， reaction models， and numerical methods in predicting impact response， energy-release behavior， and damage assessment of reactive materials are summarized. Finally， the current issues in material system design， experimental techniques， and dedicated model development are discussed， and future research directions are outlined.
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HAO Xinsheng, GENG You, YUAN Haofang, SHEN Ruiqi, WU Lizhi
Online:July 30, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026141
Abstract:To reveal the influence laws and action mechanisms of film thickness and working conditions with/without an accelerating chamber on the laser ignition performance of thin films， photoelectric detectors， high-speed cameras， spectrometers and schlieren system were adopted to investigate the laser ignition sensitivity， ignition delay time， plasma characteristics of laser-ablated thin films， laser-induced plasma shock waves and particle motion characteristics of thin films for B/KNO<sub>3</sub>/PF energetic powder under various film thicknesses and accelerating chamber thicknesses.The results show that the 204 nm-thick Ti/Al-1 thin film facilitates the laser ignition process， lowering the laser ignition energy fluence threshold from 3.94 J·cm<sup>-2</sup> （without a thin film medium） to 3.67 J·cm<sup>-2</sup>. By contrast， the 488 nm-thick Ti/Al-2 and 874 nm-thick Ti/Al-3 thin films raise the ignition energy fluence threshold， with corresponding threshold values of 4.23 J·cm<sup>-2</sup> and 4.85 J·cm<sup>-2</sup>， respectively. The laser ignition delay time increases in the order of Ti/Al-1， without thin film medium， Ti/Al-2 and Ti/Al-3， following the same trend as the laser ignition energy fluence threshold. As the film thickness rises， both the electron temperature and electron density of laser-ablated film plasma decrease. When an accelerating chamber with a thickness of 0.1 mm and inner diameter of 0.6 mm is placed between the thin film and energetic powder， no obvious variation occurs in the laser ignition sensitivity of the powder. The minimum ignition delay times of the three film systems are shortened by 0.21 ms， 1.64 ms and 2.67 ms compared with the condition without an accelerating chamber， and the optimized delay times are 1.6 ms， 1.0 ms and 1.3 ms in sequence.There exists an optimal matching relationship between thin film medium thickness and accelerating chamber thickness. The Ti/Al-2 and Ti/Al-3 thin films achieve the optimal ignition performance when matched with 0.1 mm-thick and 0.2 mm-thick accelerating chambers， respectively.
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WU Yuqi, PANG Xinqiang, PAN Hongxia, LI Shuo, MIAO Yuxin, WANG Mingya, SHEN Fanfan, ZHAO Linxiu, CAO Duanlin
Online:July 30, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026144
Abstract:3，4-Dinitropyrazole （DNP） has a moderate melting point， high density， and excellent detonation performance， and is regarded as a promising carrier explosive for melt-cast formulations. However， DNP exhibits a certain degree of hygroscopicity under high-temperature and high-humidity conditions， which may adversely affect charge-processing operations and the final performance of explosive products. The hygroscopic behavior of DNP powder was investigated using the desiccator equilibrium method. The effects of post-treatment method， temperature， relative humidity， and particle size on moisture sorption were evaluated. The influence of moisture uptake on the thermal decomposition behavior of DNP was further examined， and quantum chemical calculations were performed to predict its key moisture-sorption sites. The results showed that the post-treatment method had the most significant effect on the hygroscopicity of DNP， with benzene-recrystallized DNP exhibiting the lowest moisture sorption. Temperature and relative humidity had secondary effects， and the hygroscopicity of DNP increased with increasing temperature and relative humidity， whereas particle size had only a minor influence. When the ambient temperature was below 30 ℃， the critical relative humidity of DNP was higher than 84%， whereas it decreased to 75% at 40 ℃. Under the corresponding critical relative humidity conditions， the equilibrium moisture content of benzene-recrystallized DNP remained below 0.31%， with no obvious agglomeration or caking. Moreover， no significant changes were observed in the melting point or thermal decomposition temperature of DNP after moisture sorption. These results indicate that the hygroscopicity of DNP powder can be reduced through appropriate post-treatment and that moisture-related problems can be effectively prevented by controlling the environmental temperature and relative humidity. Quantum chemical calculations further identified the H atom of the –NH group on the pyrazole ring as the key moisture-sorption site of DNP.
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YANG Jianguo, ZHONG Ye, DAI Lei, ZHANG Jianguo, LI Zhimin
Online:August 01, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026145
Abstract:To develop novel active metal complex fuels three new types of active metal complexes were synthesized using cyanoborohydride （CBH-） as the anion transition metal Cu（Ⅱ） as the central ion and 1-methylimidazole （1-MIM） 2-methylimidazole （2-MIM） and 4-methylimidazole （4-MIM） as ligands. Their structures were accurately characterized via infrared spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction and the corresponding structural formulas are ［Cu（1-MIM）4］（CBH）2 ［Cu（2-MIM）4］（CBH）2 and ［Cu（4-MIM）4］（CBH）2 respectively. The thermal decomposition properties energy density and mechanical sensitivity of the three novel metal complexes were tested. Their theoretical specific impulse when combined with 90 % H2O2 oxidizer was calculated based on NASA-CEA and the hypergolic ignition performance of the novel active metal complex fuels with 90% H2O2 was investigated via high-speed photography. The results show that all three metal complexes exhibit high energy density （26.5~27.3 kJ·g-1） and low sensitivity with friction sensitivity >360 N and impact sensitivity >40 J. All three complexes can undergo hypergolic reaction upon contact with 90 % H2O2 at room temperature and the ignition activity follows the order ［Cu（2-MIM）4］（CBH）2 < ［Cu（4-MIM）4］（CBH）2 < ［Cu（1-MIM）4］（CBH）2. Among them ［Cu（1-MIM）4］（CBH）2 has the shortest ignition delay time of 43 ms indicating that different methyl substitution positions on the ligand significantly affect the hypergolic ignition performance of the complexes with 90% H2O2.
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GAO Yu, ZHANG Mai, CHEN Wei, CAO Huizhi, WANG Shuaiyu, WU Qiong, TAN Linghua
Online:July 27, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026086
Abstract:To reduce the cost， development cycle， and safety risks associated with the traditional trial-and-error paradigm in energetic materials research， and to improve the design efficiency of high-energy oxygen- and nitrogen-rich azole energetic compounds， a precise design strategy based on interpretable machine learning was proposed. A dataset containing 150 samples was constructed from reported detonation velocity data of azole energetic compounds. Twenty-four structural and molecular descriptors were selected， and four detonation velocity prediction models were developed. The results show that the support vector machine （SVM） model exhibited the best predictive performance， with a test-set coefficient of determination of 0.9367， a root mean square error of 0.14 km·s<sup>-1</sup>， and average and maximum relative errors of 1.6% and 3.4%， respectively. Model interpretability analysis indicates that oxygen balance， the mass fraction of nitrogen gas in detonation products， the number of nitro groups， and MolLogP are key descriptors affecting detonation velocity. Guided by these findings， a low-sensitivity azole-fused ring scaffold was selected， and 48 novel oxygen- and nitrogen-rich azole energetic compounds were designed. Predictions from the optimal model show that all designed molecules have detonation velocities higher than or comparable to that of RDX， among which 11 molecules， accounting for 22.9%， surpass HMX in detonation velocity， with predicted impact sensitivities comparable to or better than that of HMX. These results demonstrate that interpretable machine learning can be applied to the rapid screening and precise design of high-energy azole energetic compounds， providing an effective approach for the development of novel high-performance energetic materials.
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ZHOU Yuxuan, DU Huijie, ZENG Xinlong, LI Guoping, WAN Di, XUE Yunfei
Online:July 21, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026014
Abstract:To address the technical bottleneck that conventional metal fuels struggle to balance high energy and efficient energy release， the microstructure and composition， combustion process， and energy performance of AlTiV alloy powders are investigated using scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy （SEM/EDS）， X-ray diffraction （XRD）， flat-flame burner， oxygen bomb calorimeter， and thermogravimetry-differential thermal analysis （TG-DSC）. The detonation heat performance of their hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene （HTPB） propellants is further verified via the adiabatic method. The results show that AlTiV alloy powders have a high-sphericity body-centered cubic （BCC） solid solution structure， and their combustion process consists of four distinct stages： ignition， self-sustained combustion， micro-explosion， and dispersed combustion. Increasing Ti content shortens both the ignition delay and micro-explosion time and enhances the intensity of micro-explosion， while vanadium oxides can damage the surface oxide layer and promote the gas-phase combustion of aluminum vapor. The Al<sub>30</sub>Ti<sub>25</sub>V<sub>45</sub> （ATV30） alloy powder exhibits the optimal comprehensive performance， with a combustion efficiency of 97.35% and a volumetric calorific value of 86590 J·cm<sup>-3</sup>. It initiates rapid oxidation at 600 ℃， and its oxidation efficiency reaches 97.62%， which is highly consistent with its combustion efficiency. When ATV30 is used to replace 25% of aluminum powder in HTPB propellants， the volumetric explosive heat of the propellant is increased by 2.3%. It is confirmed that AlTiV alloy powders can improve the explosive heat performance of propellants through the synergistic effect of micro-explosion and gas-phase combustion， which provides a theoretical basis and experimental support for the application of novel metal fuels in solid propellants.
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YANG Yuze, LIU Jinming, PEI Yu, E Xiutianfeng
Online:July 12, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026085
Abstract:Hydroxylammonium nitrate （HAN） aqueous solution is strongly acidic and highly oxidative. To address these characteristics， three sorbitol acetal-based low-molecular-weight gelators （D1， D2， D3） were designed and synthesized， and the rapid gelation of HAN aqueous solution was successfully achieved. The gelation ability of the three gelators， as well as the rheological and thermodynamic properties of the HAN gel propellants， were systematically investigated. The results showed that all three gelators were structurally stable in acidic media and cooperatively constructed a three-dimensional network through non-covalent interactions， including hydrogen bonding， π-π stacking and halogen bonding. With only 1.0% gelator， 70% HAN aqueous solution could be gelled within 90-120 s. Rheological tests indicated that all three HAN gel propellants exhibited pronounced shear-thinning behavior， and their viscosities at high shear rate approached that of pure HAN solution， with a viscosity of 95.9 mPa·s at 1000 s-1. The thixotropic recovery rate reached as high as 87.5%， and the critical strain was 23.7%， demonstrating excellent mechanical stability. Thermodynamic analysis showed that the gel-sol transition temperatures ranged from 55-75 ℃. After storage at -25 ℃ for 30 min， no crystal precipitation or liquid exudation was observed， indicating suitable phase-transition reversibility and low-temperature stability. The gelators reduced the freezing point of HAN aqueous solution to below -25 ℃ and promoted the exothermic decomposition of HAN. The peak decomposition temperature decreased by 26.4 ℃， and the decomposition enthalpy increased to 526.3 J‧g-1. This study provides new low-molecular-weight gelator materials for the gelation of high-energy liquid propellants with strong acidity and oxidizing properties.
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TAN Xuchen, ZENG Zhiwei, TANG Mingjie, CHEN Chunhui, CHENG Guangbin, HUANG Wei, LIU Yuji, TANG Yonxing
Online:July 14, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026081
Abstract:To address the issues of low reaction efficiency and poor safety in the traditional batch process for the alternative nucleophilic substitution （VNS） amination of 3，4-dinitro-1H-pyrazole， this study employed continuous flow microreactor technology to investigate its VNS amination synthesis process and reaction kinetics. Key parameters such as temperature， feed flow rate， and residence time were systematically examined for their effects on the VNS amination reaction. The optimal reaction conditions were determined as a molar ratio of 4-amino-4H-1，2，4-triazole∶3，4-dinitro-1H-pyrazole = 3.6∶1， temperature of 60 ℃， flow rate of 50 mL·min-1， and residence time of 105 s， achieving a maximum yield of 71% with reaction time significantly reduced from 30 min to 105 s. Kinetic studies showed that the VNS amination reaction followed a first-order kinetic model， with an activation energy of 15.50 kJ·mol-1； the fitted kinetic model was well-constrained by experimental data across the temperature range of 30-60 ℃.
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CHEN Shaochen, LI Tiebin, GAO Suqi, PENG Junsheng, ZHAO Xiangyang, YAN Yongqing, XU Pengcheng, LI Jun
Online:July 02, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026101
Abstract:To reduce the cost and cycle time of iterative design experiments for composite solid propellant （CSP） formulations， this study combines machine learning with virtual formulation generation algorithms to conduct high-throughput virtual screening of nitrate ester plasticized polyether （NEPE） propellant burning rate performance and formulations. First， a dataset was constructed using 85 experimental data samples of NEPE propellants， with formulation composition， theoretical molar mass （MT）， and working pressure （P） as inputs. A gradient boosting regression tree （GBRT） model was developed to predict the burning rate of NEPE propellants， and the Shapley Additive Explanations （SHAP） method was employed to calculate feature importance and identify key factors influencing burning rate. Subsequently， a constrained grid search algorithm was used to generate a large number of virtual formulations， and the GBRT model was applied to calculate the burning rates of all virtual formulations at multiple working pressures and the burning rate pressure exponents across various pressure ranges. Finally， virtual formulations were filtered and ranked according to different screening criteria. The results show that the GBRT model achieved a coefficient of determination of 0.980， mean absolute error of 0.427 mm·s-1， root mean square error of 0.574 mm·s⁻¹， and symmetric mean absolute percentage error of 6.972% on the test set. P， MT， and the mass percentage of Φ-Pb were identified as the three most important features. Using the constrained grid search algorithm， 377，127 virtual formulations were generated. After four rounds of screening （criteria： burning rate at 6 MPa within （10.00 ± 0.10） mm·s-1， and burning rate pressure exponents below 0.5 across the ranges of 4-10， 6-10， and 4-6 MPa）， 637 virtual formulations met the requirements. Finally， the top 10 virtual formulations were selected based on proximity to the target burning rate （10.00 mm·s-1） and the magnitude of burning rate pressure exponents， respectively. The formulation screening framework proposed in this study provides an efficient and feasible pathway for achieving intelligent design of CSP formulations.
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LU Yi-ming, SHENG Xing-yu, YANG Kun, WU Yan-qing, QU Ke-peng, WANG Yi-xin, LIU Yan
Online:June 24, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026055
Abstract:Aiming at the unclear issue of damage accumulation and evolution related to the stress state of explosive charge during multiple penetration processes， this study employs a micro-crack and micro-void macro-meso damage model for PBX explosives， combined with an interface cohesion damage model. It comprehensively considers various micro-defect damage mechanisms， including the opening and shear propagation of microcracks in explosive particles， the expansion and distortion of microvoids in the matrix， as well as interface cracking and tearing damage. The stress states and micro-defect accumulation and evolution of a penetration warhead charge during penetration of a ten-layer concrete target at different impact angles are comparatively analyzed. The results indicate that during multiple penetrations， the charge experiences cyclic pulse loading. The deflection of the projectile attitude （from 10° to 44°） shifts the loading mode from predominantly axial compression to tangential shear， inducing abrupt changes in local pressure peaks （from 50 to 220 MPa） and significant increases in shear stress， thereby accelerating damage accumulation. Microcrack and interface damage within the charge initially initiate at the head edge region， propagate to the tail during stages of pronounced attitude deflection， and eventually， opening-mode cracks develop in the middle section of the charge due to bending effects. An increased impact angle （from 0° to 10°） intensifies the internal shear action on the charge， extending microcrack damage towards the middle and rear sections， enhancing microvoid distortion damage， and transitioning interface damage from early-stage opening-dominated to late-stage shear-dominated behavior. The simulated damage distribution and morphological characteristics are in good agreement with experimental CT images， validating the effectiveness of the proposed model. The findings provide theoretical support for deepening the understanding of damage accumulation and stability degradation mechanisms of charges under multiple penetrations， and for advancing the digital design capability of penetration stability.
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LI Wenlong, CHENG Zhipeng, LV Jialu, ZHANG Yu, WANG Xinyuan, WU Xingliang, FENG Mengmeng, LEI Chaogang, XU Sen
Online:July 12, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026121
Abstract:To comprehensively evaluate the thermal safety of energetic plasticizer/binder composite systems， a multiscale thermal analysis strategy was applied to N-butyl-N-（2-nitroxyethyl）nitramine （BuNENA）， poly（3，3-bis（azidomethyl）oxetane-co-tetrahydrofuran） （PBT）， and a BuNENA/PBT composite system with a mass ratio of 1∶1. Differential scanning calorimetry （DSC）， non-isothermal kinetic analysis， slow cook-off tests， 5 s explosion point tests， and self-accelerating decomposition temperature （TSADT） calculations based on the Semenov model were used to investigate their thermal decomposition behavior and thermal safety characteristics. The DSC results showed that BuNENA mainly underwent exothermic decomposition at 180-240 ℃， whereas PBT decomposed in a higher temperature range of 220-300 ℃. The BuNENA/PBT composite exhibited two exothermic peaks， and the first exothermic peak shifted to a higher temperature with a reduced low-temperature exothermic intensity， indicating that PBT could suppress the concentrated heat release of BuNENA at relatively low temperatures. Kinetic analysis further showed that the apparent activation energy of the first decomposition stage of BuNENA/PBT increased compared with that of pure BuNENA， suggesting an enhanced thermal decomposition barrier. In the slow cook-off test， the initial reaction temperature increased from 151.6 ℃ for BuNENA to 162.5 ℃ for BuNENA/PBT. The 5 s explosion point increased from 261.5 ℃ to 290.2 ℃. For a 25 kg package， the no-return temperature （TNR） and SADT of BuNENA/PBT were 134.7 ℃ and 128.1 ℃， respectively， which were higher than those of BuNENA. These results indicate that compounding BuNENA with PBT can reduce low-temperature concentrated exothermicity and improve the thermal safety margin of BuNENA-based energetic composite systems under slow heating， transient thermal stimulation， and storage-related thermal conditions.
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ZHANG Hao, FU Tao, WEN Qianqian, HE Hongtu, SUN Wenxu, YAN Xilin
Online:July 15, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026115
Abstract:Accurate characterization of the internal residual stress field in polymer-bonded explosives （PBX） is crucial for evaluating structural integrity and service safety. However， traditional inversion methods struggle to reconstruct this distribution efficiently and with high precision. A novel residual stress inversion method integrating distributed optical fiber sensing with physics-informed neural networks （PINNs） was proposed. TATB-based PBX cylindrical specimens measuring ϕ110×120 mm served as the research objects. Strain release data during the layer-removal test were acquired in real time using optical frequency-domain reflectometry （OFDR） technology. A PINNs inversion model was constructed using Gaussian temperature-field parameters as intermediate variables. Physical constraints， including static equilibrium equations and boundary conditions， were embedded into the loss function. This approach achieved an efficient mapping from limited surface strain data to the internal stress field. Results indicate that the model achieves a coefficient of determination of 0.954. The inverted results strictly satisfy fundamental solid mechanics constraints. Compared with traditional finite element optimization-based inversion methods， the PINNs model requires only about 5 minutes for a single inference after offline training. The reconstructed internal stress field exhibits a typical “tension inside， compression outside” distribution pattern. The maximum tensile stress reaches 1.03 MPa at the core， while the maximum compressive stress reaches -0.77 MPa at the middle of the lateral surface. This distribution pattern aligns perfectly with the physical mechanism of residual stress generation caused by non-uniform shrinkage during the cooling process of thermal pressing.
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LIU Jihong, XU Cong, ZHANG Yan, LI Xuhan, WEI Xianfeng
Online:June 10, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026105
Abstract:To address the problems of irregular morphology and poor mechanical properties of conventional hexanitrostilbene （HNS） crystals， HNS/F2604 microspheres were fabricated via microfluidic technology. By combining Brazilian splitting tests with finite element simulations， the mechanical properties and enhancement mechanism of the as-prepared microspheres were systematically investigated.The results show that HNS/F2604 microspheres with good sphericity and smooth surfaces can be obtained when the dispersed phase flow rate is 0.05 mL·min-1， the continuous phase flow rate is 2.0 mL·min-1 （flow rate ratio of 1∶40）， and the collection temperature is 60 ℃. The microspheres retain the original crystalline structure of HNS， while their peak thermal decomposition temperature is 4.6 ℃ lower than that of pure HNS.Brazilian splitting tests indicate that the pure HNS pellet has a peak load of 0.0065 kN and exhibits brittle fracture characteristics； in contrast， the peak load of the HNS/F2604 microsphere pellet increases to 0.072 kN， and its post-peak stress-displacement curve shows multi-stage attenuation， reflecting a transition to ductile fracture. The crack propagation morphology obtained from finite element simulations is in good agreement with the experimental fracture features. The HNS/F2604 composite microspheres prepared by microfluidic technology exhibit a remarkable toughening effect.
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LI Zhong-chao, LI Bi-bo, ZHANG Shu-hai, FENG Shang-biao
Online:June 10, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026082
Abstract:4，4'，5，5'-Tetranitro-2，2'-biimidazole （TNBI）， as an energetic material with excellent overall performance， exhibits promising application potential. However， its significant hygroscopicity severely limits practical application， primarily due to the acidic hydrogen atoms in its molecular structure that readily form hydrogen bonding networks with water. To address this issue， the insensitive explosive 3-amino-4-（4，5-diamino-1，2，4-triazol-3-yl）furazan （TATF） was employed to replace the hydrogen bonding network between TNBI and water molecules， forming a TNBI-TATF energetic ionic salt. The structure and properties of the new compound were characterized by hygroscopicity experiments， nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FTIR）， simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis-differential scanning calorimetry （TGA-DSC）， and single-crystal X-ray diffractometry. Results show that TNBI²⁻ and TATF⁺ form a dense and highly directional hydrogen bonding network， guiding the crystal to adopt a layered packing arrangement. This layered structure buffers and absorbs external mechanical impact through a “slip” mechanism， thereby reducing mechanical sensitivity. Consequently， TNBI-TATF possesses both favorable detonation performance and stability.
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LI Tai-chuan, MEI Yu-xin, LI Lan, ZHANG Chao-yang, HUANG Xin
Online:June 01, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026103
Abstract:To reveal the mechanism by which oriented alignment of thermally conductive fillers enhances the thermal conductivity of polymer matrix composites， a two-dimensional steady-state heat conduction numerical model was established for graphene/fluoropolymer composites. The effects of filler volume fraction， aspect ratio， and orientation angle on the effective thermal conductivity of the composites were systematically investigated. The results show that the effective thermal conductivity of the composite increases with the rise of graphene volume fraction and aspect ratio， but decreases with the increase of orientation angle. Graphene orientation exhibits a significant regulatory effect on directional thermal conductivity， and there is a cosine relationship between orientation angle and effective thermal conductivity， with the average coefficient of determination R2 of the fitting equation exceeding 0.99. At a volume fraction of 30% and an aspect ratio of 20∶1， as the orientation angle decreases from 90° to 10°， the effective thermal conductivity of the composite increases from 0.233 W·m-1·K-1 to 1.285 W·m-1·K-1， representing an increase of approximately 450%. This study demonstrates that oriented alignment of thermally conductive fillers can optimize the geometric matching between fillers and heat flow direction， improving the continuity and directionality of internal heat conduction pathways in composites， thereby significantly enhancing thermal transport capability along the target direction. The results can provide a theoretical basis for the structural design and performance regulation of thermally anisotropic high-thermal-conductivity composites.
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CHENG Hualing, ZHOU Zhiyu, LIU Wen, LU Bin, ZHAO Churui, YANG Haijun, LIU Tianlin
Online:June 02, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026079
Abstract:Starting from 3，5-dichloroanisole， 2，4，6-trinitro-3，5-dichloroanisole was obtained via nitration with mixed acid， which was then reacted with 4-aminopyrazole to afford 3-chloro-5-methoxy-2，4，6-trinitro-N-（1H-pyrazol-4-yl）aniline （
1 ）. Subsequent nitration of compound1 with fuming nitric acid followed by amination with aqueous ammonia successfully yielded N-（3，5-diamino-2，4，6-trinitrophenyl）-3，5-dinitro-1H-pyrazol-4-amine （4 ）. The structures of the target compounds were characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy， nuclear magnetic resonance， elemental analysis and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The detonation properties were calculated using the EXPLO5 software. A simultaneous thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry analyzer and impact/friction sensitivity testers were employed to determine the thermal decomposition temperature and mechanical sensitivities， respectively. The results show that compound4 crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system with the P21 space group. Its unit cell parameters are a=6.2175（2） Å， b=9.2348（4） Å， c=12.5837（5） Å， giving a density of 1.91 g·cm-3 （170 K）. The theoretical detonation velocity and detonation pressure are 8576 m·s-1 and 32.1 GPa， respectively. Its thermal decomposition temperature is 217 ℃； the impact sensitivity is 15 J and the friction sensitivity is 160 N. Compound4 exhibits favorable detonation performance and thermal stability.- 1
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Online:April 08, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025257
Abstract:To address the issue of significant attenuation and strong scattering of ultrasonic waves in solid propellants， which prevents existing ultrasonic transducers from detecting all internal defects， a nondestructive testing research method using ultrasonic laminated transducers is proposed. Based on the research of domestic and international scholars， this study first proposes leveraging the high transmission energy characteristic of laminated transducers to mitigate attenuation and scattering problems during ultrasonic propagation in solid rocket propellants. A 1 MHz four-layer ultrasonic transducer is designed. This transducer converts a planar acoustic field into a cylindrical acoustic field through crystal stacking， thereby enriching echo information and improving defect resolution. Based on acoustic field simulations of the ultrasonic laminated transducer， a 1 MHz four-layer ultrasonic transducer is developed. Experimental comparisons with domestic and international transducers of similar specifications show a 20 dB improvement in gain. Finally， an ultrasonic automated inspection system for solid rocket propellants is established， enabling online inspection of solid rocket propellants. The results indicate that the developed inspection equipment can accurately detect the smallest artificial blind holes measuring Φ1.2 mm × 5 mm （depth） as well as natural inclusion defects， achieving qualitative and quantitative nondestructive testing of all internal defects in solid rocket propellants.
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FANG-Song-hang, LUO Gui-ying, YOU Ting, DAI Jiu-shaung, ZHOU Jie
Online:March 31, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025248
Abstract:To improve the plasticizing effect of high-nitrogen single-base gun propellant and determine appropriate process parameters for high-nitrogen nitrocellulose （NC） during continuous twin-screw plastication， Molecular dynamics simulation was employed to analyze the effects of ethanol-ether mass ratio and solvent-NC mass ratio on NC plasticization. Ethanol-ether solubility experiments and rheological tests of the plasticized material were conducted to verify the simulation results. Results show that the solubility parameter of the ethanol-ether mixed solvent closely matches that of high-nitrogen NC. Strong hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions exist between high-nitrogen NC and ethanol， while van der Waals forces dominate between NC and ether. At an ethanol-ether mass ratio of 1∶1.4， ethanol forms strong hydrogen bonds with NC， resulting in higher solubility， which is in good consistency with the experimental results that NC exhibits maximum solubility at an ethanol-ether mass ratio of 1∶1.36. Increasing the solvent-NC mass ratio within a certain range weakens the intramolecular hydrogen-bond interaction of NC and increases the radius of gyration of the molecular chains. These changes are correlated with the macroscopic phenomena of reduced shear viscosity of the material and a more compact and uniform extruded strands surface. At a solvent-to-NC mass ratio of 0.85， NC exhibits the largest radius of gyration for NC （2.24 nm） and the fewest intramolecular hydrogen bonds， which aligns with the experimental result that the apparent shear viscosity of the material is minimized at a solvent-NC mass ratio of 0.825. Due to the combined effects of strong screw shear and solvent volatilization， it is recommended to use a lower screw speed when plasticizing high-nitrogen NC with the simulated solvent-NC mass ratio. Additionally， appropriately increasing the screw speed under a low solvent-NC mass ratio can also effectively reduce material viscosity， attention must be given to the potential adverse effects caused by shear-induced heating.
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LIN Gao-ming, WANG Su-wei, LIU Xiao-lu, ZHU Lin-yi, LIU Yao, WANG Kang
Online:March 18, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025242
Abstract:To address the challenges of low automation， high danger， and poor uniformity in conventional charging processes of thermoplastic energetic materials， this study introduced a vertical screw charging technology and established a quantitative comprehensive performance evaluation method to guide process optimization， aiming to systematically enhance process efficiency， charging quality， and operational safety. Based on an analysis of the viscoelastic properties of the slurry， the rheological behavior of the slurry during extrusion under different process conditions and formulation components was simulated， and the formation mechanisms of high-temperature and high-pressure hot spots were investigated. The results show that increasing the solid content mass fraction from 75% to 85% significantly reduces the slurry flowability， with increases in flow field pressure and shear stress by 827% and 600%， respectively， and an increase in viscous heating by 384 kW·m-3. These changes intensify the thermo-mechanical coupling behavior during screw extrusion， reduce process safety， and raise the process risk coefficient from 0.99 to 3.36. However， by adjusting the screw speed （within the range of 10 r·min-1 to 30 r·min-1） and incorporating metal particles to enhance the thermal conduction network among the barrel， slurry， and screw， the temperature fluctuation range can be reduced by 0.8 ℃ to 1.9 ℃， effectively suppressing the formation of local hot spots.
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LIU Jin-ming, ZHAO Xin, LI Wei, E Xiu-tian-feng
Online:March 17, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026002
Abstract:To investigate the effect of low-molecule-weight gelators on the overall performance of gel fuels， five acylhydrazone-based low-molecular-weight gelators were designed and synthesized. Kerosene gel fuels were prepared using the heating-cooling method， and the gelation mechanism was examined. A comprehensive evaluation system for gelator performance was established based on six parameters： the minimum addition amount of gelators （A）， the phase transition temperature （Tg）， the physicochemical stability （Spc）， the loss rate of energy density （Eloss）， the shear thinning capacity （Sthin） and the resetting property （R）. The results showed that all gelators could form three-dimensional network structures through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds and π-π conjugation， effectively confining kerosene molecules. Their gel fuels exhibited thermal reversibility （Tg = 50-80 ℃） and had good physical and chemical stability and shear thinning behavior. Among them， L18 gelator had the lowest minimum addition amount （3.1%） and the fastest gelation speed （15 s）. L5 gelator had the best physical and chemical stability and the mass retention rate was 97.5% at a high centrifugal speed of 10000 r·min-1. L16 gelator had the strongest shear thinning ability， with a viscosity of only 34.72 mPa·s after shearing. The conclusion indicated that based on the multi-dimensional performance evaluation system established by the institute， L16 and L18 gelators demonstrated significant comprehensive advantages.
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DOU Kai-le, ZHAO Wei-bo, HE Chun-lin, ZHANG Lei, PANG Si-ping
Online:February 03, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025237
Abstract:Energetic materials have attracted significant attention due to their critical roles in national defense， aerospace， and specialized engineering applications. However， their research and development are hindered by high experimental costs， safety risks， and lengthy synthesis cycles， which greatly limit the rapid iteration and practical deployment of novel energetic compounds. In recent years， machine learning （ML） has emerged as a powerful tool in chemistry and materials science owing to its strong capabilities in data modeling and prediction. This review summarizes the latest advances in machine learning–assisted chemical synthesis， focusing on three major aspects： reaction prediction， synthesis route planning， and automated synthesis. Particular emphasis is placed on the potential value and limitations of applying ML techniques to energetic material synthesis. The key challenges—such as data scarcity and inconsistency， lack of safety evaluation frameworks， and limited experimental validation and model retraining—are also discussed. Finally， the review outlines future perspectives， including the establishment of standardized and shareable databases， and the development of high-throughput and automated experimental platforms tailored for energetic systems. This work aims to provide theoretical insights and methodological support for achieving efficient and intelligent synthesis of energetic materials.
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CHENG Hualing, ZHOU Zhiyu, LIU Wen, LU Bin, ZHAO Churui, YANG Haijun, LIU Tianlin
Online:June 02, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026079
Abstract:Starting from 3，5-dichloroanisole， 2，4，6-trinitro-3，5-dichloroanisole was obtained via nitration with mixed acid， which was then reacted with 4-aminopyrazole to afford 3-chloro-5-methoxy-2，4，6-trinitro-N-（1H-pyrazol-4-yl）aniline （
1 ）. Subsequent nitration of compound1 with fuming nitric acid followed by amination with aqueous ammonia successfully yielded N-（3，5-diamino-2，4，6-trinitrophenyl）-3，5-dinitro-1H-pyrazol-4-amine （4 ）. The structures of the target compounds were characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy， nuclear magnetic resonance， elemental analysis and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The detonation properties were calculated using the EXPLO5 software. A simultaneous thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry analyzer and impact/friction sensitivity testers were employed to determine the thermal decomposition temperature and mechanical sensitivities， respectively. The results show that compound4 crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system with the P21 space group. Its unit cell parameters are a=6.2175（2） Å， b=9.2348（4） Å， c=12.5837（5） Å， giving a density of 1.91 g·cm-3 （170 K）. The theoretical detonation velocity and detonation pressure are 8576 m·s-1 and 32.1 GPa， respectively. Its thermal decomposition temperature is 217 ℃； the impact sensitivity is 15 J and the friction sensitivity is 160 N. Compound4 exhibits favorable detonation performance and thermal stability.- 1
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LI Tai-chuan, MEI Yu-xin, LI Lan, ZHANG Chao-yang, HUANG Xin
Online:June 01, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026103
Abstract:To reveal the mechanism by which oriented alignment of thermally conductive fillers enhances the thermal conductivity of polymer matrix composites， a two-dimensional steady-state heat conduction numerical model was established for graphene/fluoropolymer composites. The effects of filler volume fraction， aspect ratio， and orientation angle on the effective thermal conductivity of the composites were systematically investigated. The results show that the effective thermal conductivity of the composite increases with the rise of graphene volume fraction and aspect ratio， but decreases with the increase of orientation angle. Graphene orientation exhibits a significant regulatory effect on directional thermal conductivity， and there is a cosine relationship between orientation angle and effective thermal conductivity， with the average coefficient of determination R2 of the fitting equation exceeding 0.99. At a volume fraction of 30% and an aspect ratio of 20∶1， as the orientation angle decreases from 90° to 10°， the effective thermal conductivity of the composite increases from 0.233 W·m-1·K-1 to 1.285 W·m-1·K-1， representing an increase of approximately 450%. This study demonstrates that oriented alignment of thermally conductive fillers can optimize the geometric matching between fillers and heat flow direction， improving the continuity and directionality of internal heat conduction pathways in composites， thereby significantly enhancing thermal transport capability along the target direction. The results can provide a theoretical basis for the structural design and performance regulation of thermally anisotropic high-thermal-conductivity composites.
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LI Zhong-chao, LI Bi-bo, ZHANG Shu-hai, FENG Shang-biao
Online:June 10, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026082
Abstract:4，4'，5，5'-Tetranitro-2，2'-biimidazole （TNBI）， as an energetic material with excellent overall performance， exhibits promising application potential. However， its significant hygroscopicity severely limits practical application， primarily due to the acidic hydrogen atoms in its molecular structure that readily form hydrogen bonding networks with water. To address this issue， the insensitive explosive 3-amino-4-（4，5-diamino-1，2，4-triazol-3-yl）furazan （TATF） was employed to replace the hydrogen bonding network between TNBI and water molecules， forming a TNBI-TATF energetic ionic salt. The structure and properties of the new compound were characterized by hygroscopicity experiments， nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FTIR）， simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis-differential scanning calorimetry （TGA-DSC）， and single-crystal X-ray diffractometry. Results show that TNBI²⁻ and TATF⁺ form a dense and highly directional hydrogen bonding network， guiding the crystal to adopt a layered packing arrangement. This layered structure buffers and absorbs external mechanical impact through a “slip” mechanism， thereby reducing mechanical sensitivity. Consequently， TNBI-TATF possesses both favorable detonation performance and stability.
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LIU Jihong, XU Cong, ZHANG Yan, LI Xuhan, WEI Xianfeng
Online:June 10, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026105
Abstract:To address the problems of irregular morphology and poor mechanical properties of conventional hexanitrostilbene （HNS） crystals， HNS/F2604 microspheres were fabricated via microfluidic technology. By combining Brazilian splitting tests with finite element simulations， the mechanical properties and enhancement mechanism of the as-prepared microspheres were systematically investigated.The results show that HNS/F2604 microspheres with good sphericity and smooth surfaces can be obtained when the dispersed phase flow rate is 0.05 mL·min-1， the continuous phase flow rate is 2.0 mL·min-1 （flow rate ratio of 1∶40）， and the collection temperature is 60 ℃. The microspheres retain the original crystalline structure of HNS， while their peak thermal decomposition temperature is 4.6 ℃ lower than that of pure HNS.Brazilian splitting tests indicate that the pure HNS pellet has a peak load of 0.0065 kN and exhibits brittle fracture characteristics； in contrast， the peak load of the HNS/F2604 microsphere pellet increases to 0.072 kN， and its post-peak stress-displacement curve shows multi-stage attenuation， reflecting a transition to ductile fracture. The crack propagation morphology obtained from finite element simulations is in good agreement with the experimental fracture features. The HNS/F2604 composite microspheres prepared by microfluidic technology exhibit a remarkable toughening effect.
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CHEN Shaochen, LI Tiebin, GAO Suqi, PENG Junsheng, ZHAO Xiangyang, YAN Yongqing, XU Pengcheng, LI Jun
Online:July 02, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026101
Abstract:To reduce the cost and cycle time of iterative design experiments for composite solid propellant （CSP） formulations， this study combines machine learning with virtual formulation generation algorithms to conduct high-throughput virtual screening of nitrate ester plasticized polyether （NEPE） propellant burning rate performance and formulations. First， a dataset was constructed using 85 experimental data samples of NEPE propellants， with formulation composition， theoretical molar mass （MT）， and working pressure （P） as inputs. A gradient boosting regression tree （GBRT） model was developed to predict the burning rate of NEPE propellants， and the Shapley Additive Explanations （SHAP） method was employed to calculate feature importance and identify key factors influencing burning rate. Subsequently， a constrained grid search algorithm was used to generate a large number of virtual formulations， and the GBRT model was applied to calculate the burning rates of all virtual formulations at multiple working pressures and the burning rate pressure exponents across various pressure ranges. Finally， virtual formulations were filtered and ranked according to different screening criteria. The results show that the GBRT model achieved a coefficient of determination of 0.980， mean absolute error of 0.427 mm·s-1， root mean square error of 0.574 mm·s⁻¹， and symmetric mean absolute percentage error of 6.972% on the test set. P， MT， and the mass percentage of Φ-Pb were identified as the three most important features. Using the constrained grid search algorithm， 377，127 virtual formulations were generated. After four rounds of screening （criteria： burning rate at 6 MPa within （10.00 ± 0.10） mm·s-1， and burning rate pressure exponents below 0.5 across the ranges of 4-10， 6-10， and 4-6 MPa）， 637 virtual formulations met the requirements. Finally， the top 10 virtual formulations were selected based on proximity to the target burning rate （10.00 mm·s-1） and the magnitude of burning rate pressure exponents， respectively. The formulation screening framework proposed in this study provides an efficient and feasible pathway for achieving intelligent design of CSP formulations.
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TAN Xuchen, ZENG Zhiwei, TANG Mingjie, CHEN Chunhui, CHENG Guangbin, HUANG Wei, LIU Yuji, TANG Yonxing
Online:July 14, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026081
Abstract:To address the issues of low reaction efficiency and poor safety in the traditional batch process for the alternative nucleophilic substitution （VNS） amination of 3，4-dinitro-1H-pyrazole， this study employed continuous flow microreactor technology to investigate its VNS amination synthesis process and reaction kinetics. Key parameters such as temperature， feed flow rate， and residence time were systematically examined for their effects on the VNS amination reaction. The optimal reaction conditions were determined as a molar ratio of 4-amino-4H-1，2，4-triazole∶3，4-dinitro-1H-pyrazole = 3.6∶1， temperature of 60 ℃， flow rate of 50 mL·min-1， and residence time of 105 s， achieving a maximum yield of 71% with reaction time significantly reduced from 30 min to 105 s. Kinetic studies showed that the VNS amination reaction followed a first-order kinetic model， with an activation energy of 15.50 kJ·mol-1； the fitted kinetic model was well-constrained by experimental data across the temperature range of 30-60 ℃.
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LIU Jin-ming, ZHAO Xin, LI Wei, E Xiu-tian-feng
Online:March 17, 2026 DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026002
Abstract:To investigate the effect of low-molecule-weight gelators on the overall performance of gel fuels， five acylhydrazone-based low-molecular-weight gelators were designed and synthesized. Kerosene gel fuels were prepared using the heating-cooling method， and the gelation mechanism was examined. A comprehensive evaluation system for gelator performance was established based on six parameters： the minimum addition amount of gelators （A）， the phase transition temperature （Tg）， the physicochemical stability （Spc）， the loss rate of energy density （Eloss）， the shear thinning capacity （Sthin） and the resetting property （R）. The results showed that all gelators could form three-dimensional network structures through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds and π-π conjugation， effectively confining kerosene molecules. Their gel fuels exhibited thermal reversibility （Tg = 50-80 ℃） and had good physical and chemical stability and shear thinning behavior. Among them， L18 gelator had the lowest minimum addition amount （3.1%） and the fastest gelation speed （15 s）. L5 gelator had the best physical and chemical stability and the mass retention rate was 97.5% at a high centrifugal speed of 10000 r·min-1. L16 gelator had the strongest shear thinning ability， with a viscosity of only 34.72 mPa·s after shearing. The conclusion indicated that based on the multi-dimensional performance evaluation system established by the institute， L16 and L18 gelators demonstrated significant comprehensive advantages.
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LIU Gangwei, TAN Bo, ZHANG Tao, SONG Pu
2026,34(7):734-744, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026072
Abstract:To investigate the propagation characteristics of shock waves generated by underwater explosion constrained by different bottom sediments， this study designed 10 working-condition principle experiments of underwater explosion， covering three typical bottom sediment （concrete， sand， and clay） and varying burst heights.The shock wave pressure time-history curves of underwater explosion at different typical measuring points were collected， and the propagation characteristics were compared and analyzed. The experimental results show that when the dimensionless burst height parameter γ=0， There exists a positive correlation between the wave impedance of bottom sediment and the reflection effect of shock waves. The reflection coefficient of shock wave peak pressure on concrete markedly exceeds that of sand and clay， with corresponding maximum values of 1.337， 1.195， and 1.158 for the three sediments， respectively. Measurement azimuth exerts a significant effect on shock wave pressure propagation： the average reflection coefficient of shock wave peak pressure in the 60° direction is higher than that in the 30° direction， with the improvement amplitudes for concrete， sand， and clay reaching 25.01%， 16.44%， and 41.77%， respectively. For near-bottom explosions， the influence of bottom sediment gradually weakens with increasing burst height. When γ=0.5， the maximum reduction in the average reflection coefficient reaches 17.05% for concrete in both 30° and 60° directions and for sand and clay in the 30° direction， while the maximum increase reaches 6.65% for fine sand and clay in the 60° direction. When γ=1， the observed variation trend is consistent with that at γ=0.5， the maximum reduction in the average reflection coefficient reaches 21.37% for concrete in both 30° and 60° directions and for sand and clay in the 60° direction， while the maximum increase reaches 31.68% for sand and clay in the 30° direction， and the reflection coefficient in all directions approaches 1. Based on these results， it can be inferred that the influence of bottom sediment on shock wave pressure propagation will decrease rapidly when γ> 1.
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GUO Hao-Yu, YU Yong-Gang, HU Yu-Bo, ZHANG Xin-Wei
2026,34(7):745-753, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026016
Abstract:To clarify the evolution mechanism of the gas curtain flow field during underwater launch and optimize the in-tube drainage efficiency， this study investigates the effects of different injection pressure. A transient three-dimensional two-phase flow model was established for the drainage process during underwater gas-curtain launch. Based on a 40 mm supercavitating projectile and a spiral-grooved gas-curtain launch tube， numerical simulations of gas curtain evolution were performed under four different injection pressure conditions， and the effect of the pressurization rate on key evolution characteristics was analyzed. The results show that a higher pressurization rate results in better overall drainage performance， but it also induces higher pressure ahead of the projectile. Specifically， as the pressurization rate increases from 1 MPa·ms-1 to 4 MPa·ms-1， the drainage completion time （i.e.， the time required for the gas curtain front to reach the muzzle） decreases from 14.4 ms to 11.8 ms， achieving an 18.1% improvement in time efficiency and a 25.7% increase in drainage capacity. However， upon completion of drainage， the pressure on the projectile surface increases from 3.7 MPa to 4.96 MPa， and the average pressure inside the tube rises from 4.14 MPa to 5.47 MPa. In conclusion， although a high pressurization rate can significantly accelerate drainage， it substantially increases the subsequent in-tube motion resistance of the projectile. Therefore， in the practical matching design of propellant charge and projectile， it is necessary to comprehensively balance drainage efficiency and initial motion resistance， and reasonably control the injection pressure gradient.
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HUANG Xuan-ning, HU Hong-wei, ZHANG Chang-ge, SONG Pu
2026,34(7):754-764, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026063
Abstract:The synergistic reaction between boron and aluminum particles can ameliorate the ignition and energy release performance of boron components， thereby increasing the explosive energy of energetic charges. To optimize the structural combination and mass ratio of boron-aluminum mixed particles， a double-layer charge configuration consisting of an inner main explosive charge and an outer fuel layer was proposed in this work. The influences of particle size and mass ratio on the explosion performance of charges were systematically investigated via underwater explosion experiments. The experimental results show that when the outer fuel layer is composed solely of flake aluminum powder， micron boron powder or nano boron powder， the peak shock wave pressure of charges measured at a distance of 3 m is comparable， ranging from 10 to 10.2 MPa. Among these single-component systems， the flake aluminum powder exhibits a remarkable enhancement in explosion impulse. For boron-aluminum mixed particles with a mass ratio of 1∶1， the explosion impulse， shock wave energy and bubble energy of the charge are superior to those of pure micron boron powder and pure nano boron powder systems， while inferior to the flake aluminum powder system. The mixed system achieves the comprehensive optimal explosion performance at a boron-aluminum mass ratio of 7∶3. For the composite of micron boron powder and flake aluminum powder under this ratio， the peak shock wave pressure， explosion impulse and shock wave energy are increased by 17.6%， 15.8% and 28.7% respectively compared with the pure flake aluminum powder system， and its total energy accounts for 83.3% of that of pure flake aluminum powder. Further analysis reveals that the particle size of boron powder exerts a negligible effect on the energy distribution proportion of the system. This study demonstrates that rational gradation design of boron-aluminum particles can effectively improve the shock wave performance of energetic charges in underwater explosion and optimize the energy distribution structure.
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YU Zhi-hong, ZHANG Yi, CHEN Hao, ZHOU Liang, ZHANG Xing-gao, PENG Wen-lian, ZHUANG Zhi-hua
2026,34(7):765-776, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026045
Abstract:To improve the energy output characteristics of underwater explosives and clarify the influence law of the aluminum-oxygen ratio （RAl：O） on the energy output performance of Al-3Li alloy-containing underwater explosives. HMX-based explosives containing pure aluminum （HAl） and Al-3Li alloy （HLi） with RAl：O ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 were designed and fabricated. The surface morphology， phase composition and thermal decomposition properties of the prepared explosives were characterized via scanning electron microscopy （SEM）， X-ray diffraction （XRD）， and thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry （TG-DSC）. The detonation parameters of the explosives were calculated using EXPLO-5 software， and underwater explosion tests were performed at detonation distances of 0.4， 0.6 m and 0.8 m to determine the shock wave energy （Es） and bubble energy （Eb） of the two types of underwater explosives. The results indicate that the thermal decomposition process of the underwater explosives includes three successive stages： HMX decomposition， AP decomposition， and intense oxidation of metal powders. Compared with explosives filled with pure aluminum powder， HLi explosives exhibit a 53.81 ℃ advance in exothermic peak temperature and a 26.3% increase in mass gain. At a detonation distance of 0.4 m， the peak shock wave pressure of HLi explosives is 4.05% higher than that of HAl explosives. When the RAl：O is in the range of 0.2-0.6， the Es and Eb of HLi explosives are 5%-25% and 2.5%-11.4% higher than those of HAl explosives， respectively. For both explosives， the Eb reaches the maximum value at RAl：O=0.6， while the total energy attenuates continuously with the increase of RAl：O. The total energy of HLi explosives is up to 9.1% higher than that of HAl explosives. The energy output structure of underwater explosives changes significantly with the variation of RAl：O. Specifically， low RAl：O conditions are dominated by Es， which accounts for 55.0% of the total energy， whereas moderate and high RAl：O conditions are dominated by Eb， with a maximum proportion of 66.4%.
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ZHANG Yu, XIA Yu, CHENG Zhipeng, LIU Songyuan, ZHANG Chuanbiao, WU Xingliang, XU Sen
2026,34(7):777-785, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026132
Abstract:Improving the utilization efficiency of Al-based metallic fuels and enhancing the energy output performance of composite explosives constitute a crucial research direction in the field of energetic materials. To explore the effects of Al-Li alloys on the safety and energy output characteristics of composite explosives， systematic investigations on the mechanical sensitivity， explosion heat， and underwater explosion performance of three composite explosives （EAl， EAl-2.3Li， and EAl-5Li） containing pure Al， Al-2.3Li alloy， and Al-5Li alloy were carried out via the Langley D-optimization method， explosion heat tests， and underwater explosion experiments.The results show that under the condition of 50% ignition probability， compared with the EAl explosive， the impact energies of EAl-2.3Li and EAl-5Li are reduced by 33.02% and 42.36%， and their friction loads are decreased by 19.73% and 32.88%， respectively. The addition of Al-Li alloys increases the mechanical sensitivity of composite explosives， and the sensitivity to mechanical stimuli is further aggravated with the increase of Li content. In terms of explosion heat， Al-Li alloys can significantly improve the explosion heat of composite explosives. Among all formulations， EAl-2.3Li exhibits the maximum explosion heat of 8.712 MJ·kg-1， which is approximately 6.3% higher than that of EAl. In the underwater explosion tests， the total energy of EAl-2.3Li and EAl-5Li reaches 7.177 MJ·kg-1 and 6.954 MJ·kg-1， increased by 8.33% and 4.97% compared with EAl， which indicates that the incorporation of Al-Li alloys can effectively enhance the underwater energy release capacity of explosives.Comprehensive analysis demonstrates that the introduction of an appropriate amount of Li can effectively improve the comprehensive energy output performance of explosives， whereas the Li content has an optimal range. The EAl-2.3Li explosive achieves an excellent balance between safety and energy output performance， presenting superior comprehensive properties. This study reveals the regulation law of Li content in Al-Li alloys on the safety performance and energy release characteristics of composite explosives， and provides theoretical basis and experimental references for the optimal design and engineering application of reactive metal fuels in high-energy metal-based explosives.
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LI Xu-han, XU Cong, LIU Ji-hong, ZHANG Yan
2026,34(7):786-795, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026010
Abstract:In order to meet the multiple requirements of high safety， low cost， high temperature resistance， and high pressure resistance on the seismic source for deep oil exploration， a kind of high-voltage switch consisting of two gas discharge tubes （GDTs） was used to control the discharge of thin film capacitor， and S-type bridge foil was exploded into high-temperature and high-pressure gas/plasma to ignite the boron potassium nitrate （BPN） pellet and generate underwater shock waves. Then， the ignition threshold of the seismic source was determined by the up-down method， and the acoustic characteristics were also studied using pressure probe. The results show that the firing unit composed of a thin film capacitor （2 μF） and the high-voltage switch based on GDTs can reliably achieve pulse discharge， and work at the extreme underground environments such as high temperature and high pressure， and the cost is less than ¥10. Using the firing unit to stimulate the S-type Cu bridge foil， a firing voltage threshold of 1100 V and a critical peak current of 1847 A were determined. The measurements of underwater shock waves and acoustic source level （ASL） analysis show that the ASL excited by the seismic source is higher than 150 dB in the 50-800 Hz frequency band， meeting the requirements of underground seismic sources.
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LI Kaige, HU Hongwei, ZHANG Shenhe, ZHAO Yuxi, LI Hailong, ZHANG Zhifan
2026,34(7):796-806, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026128
Abstract:Existing studies concerning the superposition characteristics of underwater explosion shock waves are mostly limited to the near-field range， while investigations on shock wave behaviors in the mid-near field remain insufficient. In this paper， the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian （ALE） method is adopted to conduct numerical simulations on the shock wave loading characteristics under the simultaneous detonation of two explosive charges. The reliability and computational accuracy of the numerical model are validated by comparing the simulated results of free-field single and dual-charge underwater explosions with theoretical solutions and experimental data. Through parametric analysis with variable charge separation distances， the influence law of charge spacing on shock wave loading characteristics is systematically explored. The results show that the shock fronts synchronously propagate and arrive at the symmetry plane of the two charges， inducing a prominent shock wave superposition effect. When the normalized spacing h/l exceeds 0.4， the superimposed peak pressure is higher than that generated by a single charge with an equivalent total mass， whereas an opposite superposition rule occurs when h/l ≤ 0.4. The maximum relative difference in peak pressure reaches 71.23% at a normalized spacing of h/l = 2. On the asymmetric plane， shock waves from the two explosion sources arrive asynchronously， forming a typical double-peak pressure curve. The first pressure peak is solely generated by the near charge， while the second peak， though similar to the pressure characteristic of the individual far charge， presents a pressure amplitude increase of 3.19%-13.41% and an advanced arrival time. Furthermore， for a fixed total charge mass， an optimal charge spacing exists that enables the peak pressure amplification on the symmetry plane and the secondary peak pressure enhancement on the asymmetric plane to be remarkably superior to those under other spacing conditions.
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PAN Qiankun, CUI Hao, SONG Pu, GUO Rui, XU Changfeng, ZHOU Hao
2026,34(7):807-822, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026126
Abstract:To achieve favorable hole-opening performance against underwater armored protection and effective penetration in water medium simultaneously with a single shaped charge structure， and to overcome the single-functionality limitation of conventional underwater shaped charges， a finite element model was established based on the W shaped charge structure. The reliability of the simulation results was validated by comparison with jet formation and penetration experiments from the literature. The underwater formation mechanism and penetration performance of the multimode damage elements were further investigated. The results show that by controlling the initiation mode， the W shaped charge can form two types of damage elements： an explosively formed projectile （EFP） and an annular jet. The penetration depth of the EFP into water medium is proportional to the inner liner thickness （value a）， while the penetration hole diameter of the annular jet in the target plate is inversely proportional to value a. When value a increases from 3.2 mm to 7.2 mm， the penetration depth of the EFP in water medium increases by 239.2%， and the penetration hole diameter of the annular jet decreases by 30%. The penetration depth of the EFP into water medium is inversely proportional to the outer liner thickness （value b）， while the penetration hole diameter of the annular jet in the target plate is proportional to value b. When value b increases from 1.5 mm to 2.5 mm， the penetration depth of the EFP in water medium decreases by 63.5%， and the penetration hole diameter of the annular jet increases by 45.4%. This study can provide references for the design of underwater shaped charges and multimode shaped charges.
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LIANG Jianhao, AN Sensen, XIA Yu, WANG Xinyuan, LIU Songyuan, WU Xingliang, XU Sen
2026,34(7):823-832, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026129
Abstract:To improve the energy release characteristics of aluminized explosives in underwater explosions， a micro / nano self-assembled composite aluminum powder structure was constructed in this study. The effects of aluminum powder configuration and nano-Al content on the energy release behavior of cyclotetramethylene tetranitramine （HMX）-based aluminized explosives were investigated. Scanning electron microscopy was used to characterize the microstructures of the composite aluminum powders， and underwater explosion tests and heat of explosion measurements were conducted to determine the shock wave energy， bubble energy， total energy， and heat of explosion of the explosive samples. The results show that the self-assembly process promotes the attachment of nano-Al particles onto the surface of micron-sized Al particles， forming a relatively stable micro / nano composite interface. In contrast， the physically mixed samples exhibit a more random distribution of nano-Al particles and more pronounced local agglomeration. The shock wave energies of different aluminized explosives show only slight differences， whereas their bubble energy and total energy vary significantly， indicating that aluminum powder configuration and nano-Al content mainly affect the afterburning energy release during the bubble expansion and pulsation stages. Among all samples， SA-Al-5% exhibits the best overall performance， with a total underwater explosion energy of 8.29 MJ·kg-1， corresponding to 2.35 times that of an equal mass of TNT. Its heat of explosion reaches 8421 kJ·kg-1， with a TNT equivalent of 2.04. The enhancement mechanism is attributed to the favorable interfacial contact between an appropriate amount of nano-Al and micron-sized Al particles. The early activation of nano-Al promotes the subsequent combustion of micron-sized Al， enabling the afterburning energy of aluminum to be more effectively coupled into the bubble expansion stage. When the nano-Al content increases to 10%， particle agglomeration， an increased oxide-shell fraction， and mismatched reaction timing weaken the effective energy release. These results indicate that a nano-Al content of 5% is well matched with the self-assembled micro / nano interfacial structure， providing a useful reference for optimizing metallic fuel configurations and enhancing bubble energy in aluminized underwater explosives.
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DU Xiaobin, SONG Pu, YAO Lina, CUI Hao, GUO Rui
2026,34(7):833-840, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026100
Abstract:To calibrate the equation of state for the detonation products of the pressed HMX/FOX-7 composite explosive， a Φ25.4 mm probe cylinder test was conducted. The JWL equation of state parameters were calibrated based on the expansion displacement-time history of the cylinder wall. Additionally， underwater explosion tests of the HMX/FOX-7 composite explosive were performed to validate the effectiveness and applicability of the calibrated parameters. The results demonstrate that the coefficient of determination （R2） between the simulated and experimental displacement curves reaches 0.9999， indicating the high accuracy of the calibrated JWL parameters. Furthermore， numerical simulations of the underwater explosion tests were carried out using the calibrated equation of state. Compared with the experimental data at stand-off distances of 2.0 m and 2.4 m， the relative errors of the simulated peak overpressure are -2.34% and 4.37%， the relative errors of the impulse are 9.3% and 1.43%， and the relative errors of the specific shock wave energy are -1.1% and -6.4%， respectively. Moreover， for the first bubble pulsation period and the maximum bubble expansion radius， the relative deviations among the simulated values， experimental measurements， and empirical formula predictions are all within 10%. The strong agreement between the simulations and experiments across both the cylinder and underwater explosion tests confirms that the calibrated JWL parameters exhibit high precision and excellent applicability， providing a reliable foundation for further research on HMX/FOX-7 composite explosives in underwater applications.
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LU Xi, CHE Jingping, BAI Fan, LIU De
2026,34(7):841-850, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026123
Abstract:To predict the overall deformation and damage characteristics of ring-stiffened cylindrical shells subjected to underwater explosion loading， this study proposes a point-cloud displacement field prediction and deformation reconstruction method integrating a PointNet-based conditional diffusion model， K-nearest neighbor algorithm， graph neural network residual correction， and spatial interpolation. The deformation response data of the cylindrical shell obtained from numerical simulations are used for model training， and a deformation response prediction model for cylindrical shells under underwater explosion loading is established. The proposed model enables the prediction of three-dimensional deformation displacements and the reconstruction of complete surface deformation profiles under different charge masses， standoff distances， and time conditions. Error evaluation results show that the mean squared error， root mean squared error， mean absolute error， and coefficient of determination on the validation set are 0.0077 mm²， 0.0877 mm， 0.0548 mm， and 0.9858， respectively， indicating high displacement prediction accuracy. The reconstruction results can effectively reflect the deformation history and final overall deformation morphology of the cylindrical shell.
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TAO Chen, WANG Xin, LIN Mingqing, QIU Zhangsheng, SU Changwang, TANG Dan, TANG Tao, LI Huiyu
2026,34(7):851-858, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026125
Abstract:Underwater blasting serves an indispensable construction technique for marine resource prospecting and ocean engineering construction. Nevertheless， the generated blast shock waves inflict varying degrees of damage on nearby reef-building corals and undermine the stability of coral reef ecosystems. Taking Cyphastrea japonica （Japanese cyphastrea） symbionts as the research object， this study reveals the physiological damage effects induced by underwater blast shock waves from three dimensions： coral host， symbiotic zooxanthellae and epibiotic microbial communities. The experimental results demonstrate that the critical shock wave resistance threshold of Cyphastrea japonica is 6.74 MPa. The total protein content of corals declines progressively with the increase of shock wave intensity， with a maximum reduction rate of 59.6%. When exposed to a blast shock wave of 11.01 MPa， the zooxanthellae density dropped by 87% and the photosynthetic capacity decreased by 49%， accompanied by obvious coral bleaching symptoms. Blast shock waves markedly suppressed the activities of superoxide dismutase （SOD） and catalase （CAT）， which meant the coral antioxidant defense system was impaired. After shock wave exposure， the epibiotic microbial communities presented significantly elevated diversity at the phylum taxonomic level and more complex community composition at the genus level. This work elucidates the stepwise damage evolution pathway of coral host–zooxanthellae photosynthetic system–microbial communities caused by underwater blast shock waves， and provides a scientific theoretical basis for coral reef ecological protection during ocean blasting engineering.
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MING Furen, JIN Yuenan, ZHANG Bowen, ZHU Shipeng, JIANG Ruihan, ZHANG Nu, ZHANG Aman
2026,34(7):859-891, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026118
Abstract:With the continuous development of underwater weapons such as torpedoes and naval mines， the survivability of ships is facing increasingly severe threats. Under underwater contact explosions， multiple damage elements， including shock waves， bubble pulsations， and secondary fragments， interact with each other， which can easily cause severe damage to hull structures. To address this， this paper first analyzes the load characteristics of underwater contact explosions and systematically reviews the spatial-temporal evolution laws of shock waves， bubble pulsations， and secondary fragments. On this basis， the protective mechanisms of ship underwater protection systems are examined from two perspectives： multi-compartment protective structures and protective schemes employing composite structures and materials. Finally， key technical challenges that urgently need to be resolved in current research are identified， with the aim of providing a useful reference for the future development of ship damage and protection technologies against underwater contact explosions.
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Vol, 34, No.7, 2026 Underwater Explosion Damage Technology
>Editorial
>Perspective
>Research Articles
>Reviews
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Propellant
2021-2023 Collection
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Gun Propellant
2021-2023 Collection
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Safety and damage study
2021-2023 Collection
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Initiator and Pyrotechnics
2021-2023 Collection
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Preparation and Property
2021-2023 Collection
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Crystal and microscopic analysis
2020-2022 发表
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Chemical Propellant
2021-2022 Collection
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Eco-friendly technology
2021-2022 Collection
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Initiating explosive device technology
2021-2022 Collection
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Damage and ignition
2021-2022 Collection
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Thermal decomposition，safety performance and evaluation
2021-2022 Collection
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Preparation and performance—Characterization of molding materials
2021-2022 Collection
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Preparation and performance—Characterization of synthesis
2021-2022 Collection
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Preparation and performance—Study on synthesis and performance
2021-2022 Collection
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Explosion and damage
2021-2022 Collection
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Detonation physics of energetic materials
2021-2022 Collection
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High efficiency destruction technology
2021-2022 Collection
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Propulsion and projection—Propulsion Materials structure and activity relationship
2021-2022 Collection
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Propulsion and projection—Preparation and performance about propulsion materials
2021-2022 Collection
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Calculation and simulation—Material structure and response
2021-2022 Collection
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Calculation and simulation—Structural evolution of materials
2021-2022 Collection
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Calculation and simulation—Material performance prediction
2021-2022 Collection
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Damage and Ignition
2020
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Detonation Physics
2020
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Special Issue
Virtual Special Issue
