• 含能快递-2025年第3期

  YANG Hong-wei

  Online:March 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2026004

  Abstract(40) HTML(20) PDF(679.36 K)( 20)

  Abstract:

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• One-step Synthesis of Thermally Stable and Insensitive Energetic Molecule 2-Amino-3，6-dinitropyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine

  YU Long-xin, CAI Zi-wu, JIANG Tian-yu, CAO Yu-teng, ZHANG Wen-quan

  Online:March 13, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025262

  Abstract(3) HTML(16) PDF(1.45 M)( 10)

  Abstract:Nitrogen-rich fused-ring energetic molecules have gained extensive attention in the field of energetic material due to their high nitrogen content， high enthalpy of formation， and extensive conjugated structures， which enable a better balance between energy and safety. Nevertheless， their synthetic routes are often relatively cumbersome， involving skeleton construction and functional group introduction. In this work， starting from commercially available 4-nitro-1H-pyrazole-3，5-diamine and sodium nitromalonaldehyde， the fused bicyclic energetic molecule 2-amino-3，6-dinitropyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （1） was synthesized in a one-step reaction with a high yield of 89.3%. The target compound was characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance， infrared spectroscopy， and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Compound 1 crystallizes in the monoclinic space group C2/c with a measured density of 1.774 g·cm^-3 at room temperature. Its detonation performance was calculated by EXPLO5 software， its thermal decomposition temperature and mechanical sensitivity were evaluated by thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry and impact/friction sensitivity tests. The results indicated that compound 1 exhibits an onset decomposition temperature of 303 ℃， based on measured density， a calculated detonation velocity of 7680 m·s^-1， and a detonation pressure of 22.7 GPa. Its impact sensitivity is better than 60 J， and friction sensitivity is greater than 360 N， demonstrating that it is a thermally stable and insensitive explosive molecule with potential application value.

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• Research Progress on On-Site Rapid Detection Technology for Gunshot Residue

  PENG Guo-bin, ZHAO Peng-cheng, DUAN Jia-he, SONG Hui, NAN Ce

  Online:February 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025259

  Abstract(118) HTML(98) PDF(2.17 M)( 316)

  Abstract:Gunshot residue （GSR） is a trace particle formed during the firing of a bullets. As an important research subject in forensic science， it plays a key role in the investigation of gun-related cases. Currently， conventional GSR detection mainly relies on large laboratory instruments. However， due to the complexity of sample pretreatment and the longthy submission process， it is difficult to provide analysis results quickly， thereby affecting the decision-making efficiency of on-site investigation work. In recent years， GSR on-site rapid detection technology has received widespread attention due to its simple operation， low cost， and portability. This type of technology can be directly implemented at the crime scene without relying on large precison instruments ， and can quickly output detection results. It is suitable for the preliminary screening of GSR and can also be used as the final confirmation detection method， and has become a research hotspot in this field. Therefore， a systematic review of the research progress on-site rapid detection technology for GSR is conducted， focusing on introducing five categories of methods： colorimetric methods， spectroscopic methods， mass spectrometry methods， electrochemical methods， and fluorescent labeling methods. Their advantages and limitations are thoroughly analyzed， and they are compared with the practical applications of laboratory detection technology. Finally， future research development directions are proposed， aiming to provide theoretical basis and methodological references for on-site technicians in actual detection work.

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• Synthesis and Properties of Energetic Compounds with Tetrazole Combined Fused Ring Structures

  ZHANG Guo-jie, TAN Lei, DENG Qi-ye, CHEN Hong-wei, YANG Ya-lin, QIN Yi-feng, WU Bo

  Online:February 04, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025247

  Abstract(132) HTML(316) PDF(1.47 M)( 440)

  Abstract:Two neutral energetic compounds， 3-nitro-7-amino-6-（1H-tetrazol-5-yl）pyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （3） and 2-nitramino-7-amino-6-（1H-tetrazol-5-yl）-［1，2，4］triazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （4）， were synthesized via nitration of tetrazole combined fused-ring pyrazolo-pyrimidine and tetrazole combined fused-ring triazolo-pyrimidine. By exploiting the basicity of nitrogen atoms in the pyrimidine ring， nitrate （5， 7） and perchlorate （6， 8） salts were subsequently obtained through proton transfer reactions. The structures of the compounds were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy （¹H and ¹³C NMR）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， and elemental analysis （EA）. Single crystals of compounds 5 and 7 were obtained by solvent evaporation， and their crystal structures characterized confirmed by X-ray single-crystal diffraction. Furthermore， their physicochemical properties and mechanical sensitivity were assessed through gas pycnometer， differential scanning calorimetry （DSC）， impact sensitivity/friction sensitivity tests， alongside theoretical calculations of their heat of formation and detonation performance. The results indicate that compounds 4-8 exhibit detonation velocities ranging from 7870 to 8471 m?s^-1， and detonation pressures from 23.1 to 30.7 GPa， which are superior to that of TNT （D_v： 6881 m?s^-1， p： 19.5 GPa）. The detonation performance of the nitrate （5， 7） and perchlorate （6， 8） salts surpasses that of their corresponding neutral compounds 3 and 4. Notably， the perchlorate salt （compound 8： D_v： 8471 m?s^-1， p： 30.7 GPa） exhibits the most outstanding detonation performance. This study demonstrates that constructing tetrazole-fused structures containing basic nitrogen sites， followed by introducing oxygen-rich energetic anions through proton transfer， is an effective strategy for tuning the detonation properties of energetic materials.

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• Machine Learning-Enabled Synthesis of Energetic Materials： Progress and Challenges

  DOU Kai-le, ZHAO Wei-bo, HE Chun-lin, ZHANG Lei, PANG Si-ping

  Online:February 03, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025237

  Abstract(112) HTML(202) PDF(2.75 M)( 390)

  Abstract:Energetic materials have attracted significant attention due to their critical roles in national defense， aerospace， and specialized engineering applications. However， their research and development are hindered by high experimental costs， safety risks， and lengthy synthesis cycles， which greatly limit the rapid iteration and practical deployment of novel energetic compounds. In recent years， machine learning （ML） has emerged as a powerful tool in chemistry and materials science owing to its strong capabilities in data modeling and prediction. This review summarizes the latest advances in machine learning–assisted chemical synthesis， focusing on three major aspects： reaction prediction， synthesis route planning， and automated synthesis. Particular emphasis is placed on the potential value and limitations of applying ML techniques to energetic material synthesis. The key challenges—such as data scarcity and inconsistency， lack of safety evaluation frameworks， and limited experimental validation and model retraining—are also discussed. Finally， the review outlines future perspectives， including the establishment of standardized and shareable databases， and the development of high-throughput and automated experimental platforms tailored for energetic systems. This work aims to provide theoretical insights and methodological support for achieving efficient and intelligent synthesis of energetic materials.

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• Curing Reaction Characteristics of HTPB/IPDI Energetic Composite Slurry

  YANG Li-jie, ZHAI Jin-xian, XING Zi-han, TONG Tian-lin

  Online:March 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025270

  Abstract(13) HTML(82) PDF(1.40 M)( 37)

  Abstract:To reveal the curing reaction characteristics of polyurethane-crosslinked energetic composite slurry， this study derived the curing kinetic equations for the HTPB/IPDI system based on the evolution of characteristic functional groups monitored by in-situ ATR-FTIR spectroscopy during the curing process. The evolution of characteristic groups was monitored at 45 ℃， 50 ℃， 55 ℃， 60 ℃ and 65 ℃. Using the derived equations， kinetic curves for the slurry curing reaction were constructed， and the apparent activation energy was determined. The results indicate a two-stage curing process. The first stage corresponds to the pre-gelation period， with an apparent activation energy （E_a1） of 69.83±5.54 kJ·mol^-1. The second stage corresponds to the post-gelation curing period， with an apparent activation energy （E_a2） of 71.31±4.45 kJ·mol^-1. The apparent activation energy for the HTPB/IPDI energetic composite slurry is significantly higher than that of a homogeneous HTPB/IPDI mixture.

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• Construction of Tricyclo［3.3.1.03^，?］nonane-2，6-dione and Synthesis of Tetranitro-derivative

  ZHU Long, ZHOU Qi, LI Huan, LI Bing, LUO Jun

  Online:February 05, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025240

  Abstract(100) HTML(240) PDF(1.01 M)( 416)

  Abstract:A novel cage-like compound tricyclo［3.3.1.03^，?］nonane-2，6-dione was synthesized from bicyclic［3.3.1］non-2，6-dione through bromination， cyclization and reductive debromination. Its energetic derivative 2，2，6，6-tetranitrotricyclo［3.3.1.03^，?］nonane was prepared via oximation and gem-dinitration. The structure of target compound was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR）， elemental analysis （EA）， and single crystal X-ray diffraction （SC-XRD）. The thermal stability was studied by differential scanning calorimetry （DSC） and thermogravimetric analysis （TG）. The detonation performances were predicted by EXPLO5. Results show that 2，2，6，6-tetranitrotrycyclo［3.3.1.03^，?］nonane crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system， space group P2/n with a crystal density of 1.691 g?cm^-3. Its onset thermal decomposition temperature is 186 ℃. The theoretical detonation velocity and detonation pressure are 7319 m·s^-1 and 21.57 GPa， respectively， which are much higher than that of its adamantane-based homologue 2，2，6，6-tetranitroadamantane.

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• Analysis Method of Hydroxylammonium Nitrate-Based Propellant Based on Molecular Spectroscopy Multivariate Calibration Technology

  MENG Xing, ZHEN Jiang-tao, XU Lin-nan, LI Jun

  Online:March 09, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025255

  Abstract(21) HTML(60) PDF(1.10 M)( 61)

  Abstract:To achieve one-step determination of component contents in hydroxylammonium nitrate-based propellants （HAN-based propellant） and address issues like complex procedures and long analysis cycles of existing methods， molecular spectroscopy multivariate calibration technology was employed to develop the analytical method for such propellants. Near-infrared （NIR） spectra of prepared HAN-based propellant samples were acquired. Using partial least squares （PLS）， the optimal spectral pretreatment methods， spectral regions， and number of principal components （NPC） were selected， and outliers were eliminated. Separate NIR quantitative analysis models were established for the four main components in the propellant： hydroxylammonium nitrate， nitrate A， additive B and additive C. All established models exhibit excellent performance. The correlation coefficients of the calibration set （RC） are all above 0.997， and those of the validation set （RP） are all above 0.990. The standard error of calibration （SEC） was below 0.06 for all models， and the standard error of prediction （SEP） was below 0.09. Additionally， the ratio of SEP to SEC is less than 2 for each model. The results show that the NIR method has good consistency with manual titration and gas chromatography （GC）. The test deviations of the four components are all less than 0.10%. The NIR method also demonstrates high precision. The standard deviations （SD） of repeated tests for hydroxylammonium nitrate and nitrate A are less than 0.10%. For additive B and additive C， the SD of repeated tests are less than 0.03%. The established quantitative analysis models and method enable simple， rapid and one-step determination of component contents in HAN-based propellants.

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• Synthesis and Properties of Energetic Compounds Based on 1，2，5-oxadiazole-bridged Bis（1，2，4-oxadiazole）

  ZHU Teng, TANG Jie, CHENG Guang-bin, YANG Hong-wei

  Online:February 04, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025231

  Abstract(99) HTML(324) PDF(1.46 M)( 377)

  Abstract:Furoxan has been extensively studied due to its high energy provided by potential “nitro” fragment， but the relatively poor stability limits its practical applications. A novel energetic compound， 3，3"-（1，2，5-oxadiazole-3，4-diyl）bis（1，2，4-oxadiazol-5-amine）（1）， was synthesized from dicyanofuroxan via a three-step procedure involving reduction， oximation， and cyclization-dehydration reactions. Subsequent nitration of 1 afforded 3-（4-（5-amino-1，2，4-oxadiazol-3-yl）-1，2，5-oxadiazol-3-yl）-1，2，4-oxadiazol-5（4H）-one（2）. The structures of both compounds were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance （NMR） spectroscopy， elemental analysis （EA）， infrared （IR） spectroscopy， and single crystal X-ray diffraction analyses. Results show that compound 1 crystallizes in orthorhombic crystal system， space group Pbcn， Z = 4， with a crystal density of 1.825 g·cm?3. The trihydrate of compound 2·3H?O crystallizes in triclinic crystal system， space group P1， Z = 2， with a crystal density of 1.641 g·cm^-3 Both compounds exhibit high insensitivity to mechanical stimuli， with impact sensitivity >40 J and friction sensitivity >360 N. Their calculated detonation velocity （7921 m·s^-1 for 1 and 7660 m·s^-1 for 2） and detonation pressure （22.4 GPa for 1 and 20.5 GPa for 2） are superior to those of TNT （6881 m·s^-1， 19.5 GPa）.

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• Research Progress and Application Challenges of PTFE-Based Reactive Materials

  LI Xiang, ZHAO Kong-xun, LI Shun, LIU Kai, YANG Hong-tai, XU Chun-jing, XUAN Yu, REN Liang, LIU Gui-tao

  Online:January 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025221

  Abstract(204) HTML(426) PDF(1.71 M)( 792)

  Abstract:Polytetrafluoroethylene （PTFE）-based reactive materials have emerged as pivotal candidates for enhancing warhead lethality due to their high reactivity and strong post-detonation effects， garnering significant attention in the field of high-efficiency destruction. Component modification serves as a critical technique for optimizing the performance of such materials， where the introduction of various additive components can effectively regulate the mechanical strength and energy release characteristics of PTFE-based composites. This review systematically summarizes and compares research progress and functional features of modification systems， including reactive components， inert components， and metal hydrides. It focuses on elucidating the mechanisms by which metal hydrides modification systems synergistically enhance the dynamic mechanical properties and impact-induced energy release characteristics through the “decomposition-hydrogen release- in-situ reinforcement- multi-path reaction coupling”mechanism. Building upon this foundation， the review analyzes current challenges in hydride stability， process compatibility， and cost reduction， while also outlining future research directions such as the development of novel coating materials and advancements in advanced forming technologies.

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• Preparation and Performance of Anti-hygroscopic ADN/HMTA Cocrystal

  ZHANG Yong-ting, WANG Ying, XIA Hong-lei, ZHANG Qing-hua

  Online:December 23, 2025  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025230

  Abstract(213) HTML(274) PDF(1.99 M)( 864)

  Abstract:To address the issue of the strong hygroscopicity of green high-energy oxidant ammonium dinitramide （ADN） limiting its engineering application， an ADN/hexamethylenetetramine （HMTA） cocrystal was prepared and its properties were studied. The cocrystal was synthesized using the solvent evaporation method. Its crystal structure， purity， thermal properties， energetic performance， mechanical sensitivity， and hygroscopicity were systematically characterized by single crystal X-ray diffraction （SC-XRD）， powder X-ray diffraction （PXRD）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， elemental analysis （EA）， simultaneous thermal analysis （TG-DSC）， oxygen bomb calorimetry， BAM impact/friction sensitivity tests and hygroscopicity tests. The 2D fingerprint was constructed with Crystalexplorer to study its intermolecular interactions. Results show that the asymmetric unit of the cocrystal contains two ADN molecules and one HMTA molecule， belonging to monoclinic crystal system with C2/c space group， and has a density of 1.564 g·cm^-3. The analysis of intermolecular interactions confirms the formation of N─H…N hydrogen bonds with shorter bond length and greater strength in the cocrystal. The cocrystal is a pure phase with a molar ratio of ADN and HMTA of 2∶1 from XRD and EA analysis. The melting point and initial decomposition temperature of the cocrystal are 130.2 ℃ and 168.5 ℃， which are 38.8 ℃ and 14.3 ℃ higher than that of ADN. The formation enthalpy of the cocrystal is -492.55 kJ·mol^-1， the theoretical specific impulse value is 201.07 s， the detonation velocity and pressure are 7854 m·s^-1 and 20.72 GPa， respectively. The friction and impact sensitivity of the cocrystal are 288 N and above 50 J， both higher than those of ADN. The hygroscopicity rate of the cocrystal is 0 after 153 h at 25 ℃ and 70% relative humidity， for ADN the hygroscopicity rate reaches to 20.95% after 48 h. The preparation of ADN/HMTA cocrystal effectively solves the problem of strong hygroscopicity of ADN.

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• Research Progress and Application Challenges of PTFE-Based Reactive Materials

  LI Xiang, ZHAO Kong-xun, LI Shun, LIU Kai, YANG Hong-tai, XU Chun-jing, XUAN Yu, REN Liang, LIU Gui-tao

  Online:January 12, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025221

  Abstract(204) HTML(426) PDF( 792)

  Abstract:Polytetrafluoroethylene （PTFE）-based reactive materials have emerged as pivotal candidates for enhancing warhead lethality due to their high reactivity and strong post-detonation effects， garnering significant attention in the field of high-efficiency destruction. Component modification serves as a critical technique for optimizing the performance of such materials， where the introduction of various additive components can effectively regulate the mechanical strength and energy release characteristics of PTFE-based composites. This review systematically summarizes and compares research progress and functional features of modification systems， including reactive components， inert components， and metal hydrides. It focuses on elucidating the mechanisms by which metal hydrides modification systems synergistically enhance the dynamic mechanical properties and impact-induced energy release characteristics through the “decomposition-hydrogen release- in-situ reinforcement- multi-path reaction coupling”mechanism. Building upon this foundation， the review analyzes current challenges in hydride stability， process compatibility， and cost reduction， while also outlining future research directions such as the development of novel coating materials and advancements in advanced forming technologies.

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• Synthesis and Properties of Energetic Compounds with Tetrazole Combined Fused Ring Structures

  ZHANG Guo-jie, TAN Lei, DENG Qi-ye, CHEN Hong-wei, YANG Ya-lin, QIN Yi-feng, WU Bo

  Online:February 04, 2026  DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025247

  Abstract(132) HTML(316) PDF( 440)

  Abstract:Two neutral energetic compounds， 3-nitro-7-amino-6-（1H-tetrazol-5-yl）pyrazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （3） and 2-nitramino-7-amino-6-（1H-tetrazol-5-yl）-［1，2，4］triazolo［1，5-a］pyrimidine （4）， were synthesized via nitration of tetrazole combined fused-ring pyrazolo-pyrimidine and tetrazole combined fused-ring triazolo-pyrimidine. By exploiting the basicity of nitrogen atoms in the pyrimidine ring， nitrate （5， 7） and perchlorate （6， 8） salts were subsequently obtained through proton transfer reactions. The structures of the compounds were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy （¹H and ¹³C NMR）， Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy （FT-IR）， and elemental analysis （EA）. Single crystals of compounds 5 and 7 were obtained by solvent evaporation， and their crystal structures characterized confirmed by X-ray single-crystal diffraction. Furthermore， their physicochemical properties and mechanical sensitivity were assessed through gas pycnometer， differential scanning calorimetry （DSC）， impact sensitivity/friction sensitivity tests， alongside theoretical calculations of their heat of formation and detonation performance. The results indicate that compounds 4-8 exhibit detonation velocities ranging from 7870 to 8471 m?s^-1， and detonation pressures from 23.1 to 30.7 GPa， which are superior to that of TNT （D_v： 6881 m?s^-1， p： 19.5 GPa）. The detonation performance of the nitrate （5， 7） and perchlorate （6， 8） salts surpasses that of their corresponding neutral compounds 3 and 4. Notably， the perchlorate salt （compound 8： D_v： 8471 m?s^-1， p： 30.7 GPa） exhibits the most outstanding detonation performance. This study demonstrates that constructing tetrazole-fused structures containing basic nitrogen sites， followed by introducing oxygen-rich energetic anions through proton transfer， is an effective strategy for tuning the detonation properties of energetic materials.

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Vol, 34, No.2, 2026    

>Research Articles

• Pore Collapse and Hot Spot Formation Mechanisms in HMX Crystals under Moderate Shock Pressure

  ZHANG Ke, XIE Fei-jun, YANG Xiao-yuan, LI Jing, Ma Yun-can, Ma xiao

  2026,34(2):111-121, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025261

  Abstract(72) HTML(13) PDF(3.10 M)( 126)

  Abstract:Hot spots are critical initiators of both shock-induced detonation and non-shock ignition in explosives， with pore collapse as a primary formation mechanism. Since energetic materials are routinely subjected to complex mechanical loading across a broad intensity range during service， a mechanistic understanding of pore evolution and hot-spot generation under moderate shock pressures （1-10 GPa） is essential for reliable safety assessment. In this study， HMX （octahydro-1，3，5，7-tetranitro-1，3，5，7-tetrazocine） crystals containing a 300 μm prefabricated pore were investigated. High-speed imaging combining X-pinch and visible-light diagnostics captured the dynamic pore collapse process， while thermomechanically coupled numerical simulations accounted for the conversion of plastic work into thermal energy. The results reveal distinct pore collapse modes and associated hot-spot formation mechanisms. At 2.5 GPa， the isotropic pore collapse mechanism was observed， with hot spot intensity correlating positively with the extent of pore collapse. The temperature rise occurs in two stages： an initial gradual increase due to upstream viscoplastic deformation， followed by a sharp temperature rise after pore closure， resulting from the thermal conversion of kinetic energy during the impact of high-velocity upstream material on the downstream pore wall. When the shock pressure is increased to 3.5 GPa， pore collapse initiates earlier， the crescent-shaped deformation becomes more pronounced， and the mechanical response exhibits hydrodynamic behavior， indicating a transition toward jetting-type collapse.

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• Study on Energy Release Process and Characteristics of Single-base Propellant Under CO₂ Atmosphere

  LI Cheng-long, DING Ya-jun, XIAO Zhong-liang

  2026,34(2):122-129, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025265

  Abstract(45) HTML(4) PDF(1.47 M)( 98)

  Abstract:To address the application potential and demand of propellant/supercritical carbon dioxide （SC-CO₂） in ejection work， thermal analysis， static combustion and closed combustion tests were carried out in comparison with a N₂ environment， to investigate the thermal decomposition and combustion characteristics of single-based propellant in CO₂. The results show that the CO₂ atmosphere significantly suppresses the pyrolysis process of single-based propellant， and its maximum activation energy is 15.53 kJ·mol^-1 higher than that in N₂ atmosphere. The combustion time of single-based propellant in CO₂ is remarkably prolonged， increasing by 1729 ms at 7 MPa compared with the N₂ environment. Moreover， the combustion flame of single-based propellant in SC-CO₂ exhibits a special morphology with an inner white core and outer pale red periphery. During closed combustion， the phase change and heat absorption of liquid CO₂ lead to an ignition delay of single-based propellant up to 12.20 ms， and the action duration of single-based propellant in SC-CO₂ is on the order of 10^-2 s. Increasing the initial pressure helps to improve the energy release rate of single-based propellant in the SC-CO₂ environment.

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• Characterization and Analysis of Tensile Damage Evolution in Aged NEPE Propellant Based on Fractal Dimension

  ZHANG Tao, JI Yong-chao, LI Zhuo, CHEN Jia-xing, LIU Xiao-han, TIAN Li-min, LIANG Wen-long, MO Shi-liang

  2026,34(2):130-137, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025163

  Abstract(51) HTML(8) PDF(1.89 M)( 101)

  Abstract:To quantitatively investigate the evolution of surface mesoscopic damagein nitrate ester plasticized polyether （NEPE） propellant during tension before and after aging， thermal accelerated aging tests were conducted with different aging days （0， 7 d， 40 d， 80 d）. An in-situ tensile machine combined with field emission scanning electron microscopy （FE-SEM） was employed for in-situ tensile testing， after which the captured images underwent digital processing. The fractal dimension was applied to quantitatively characterize and analyze the evolution of mesoscopic damage in the propellant at different aging stages. The differences between porosity method and fractal dimension method in characterizing mesoscopic damage before and after aging were studied. Results indicate that fractal dimension successfully captures the apparent damage evolution of NEPE propellant over different aging stages. During tension， for elongation below 20%， the fractal dimension rises relatively quickly with elongation. In the 20%-60% elongation range， the fractal dimension still increase with elongation， though at a reduced rate. Moreover， longer aging times were found to enhance the linear correlation between fractal dimension and elongation in this stage. Beyond 60% elongation， the fractal dimension shows irregular variation with elongation for all aging stages. Differences emerged between the porosity method and the fractal dimension method when characterizing the tensile process， especially after aging. While the porosity method mainly measuresthe area fraction of pores， the fractal dimension method characterizes the roughness and complexity of the surface morphology.

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• Diffusion Behavior of Hydrazine Hydrate during the Fabrication of Nitro Gradiently Distributed Propellant

  LI Yang, GU Yu-le, WANG Xin-yu, FAN Hong-lei, SUN Jia-qi, LI Chun-zhi, WU Xiao-qing

  2026,34(2):138-145, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025228

  Abstract(26) HTML(10) PDF(1.72 M)( 91)

  Abstract:To investigate the diffusion behavior of hydrazine hydrate in nitrocellulose （NC）–based propellant and its influence on the gradient distribution of nitrate ester groups on the propellant surface， molecular dynamics （MD） simulation combined with experimental characterization was employed to study the diffusion process during the construction of a nitro gradiently distributed propellant （NGDP）. An NC/N₂H₄/H₂O ternary system was established to examine the effects of NC nitrogen content， reaction temperature， and hydrazine hydrate concentration on diffusion behavior. Meanwhile， NGDP samples were prepared through a one-step green synthesis route， and their structural and compositional distributions were characterized using extended-depth-of-field microscopy， Raman line-scanning， and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy （XPS）. The results show that an increase in the NC nitrogen content significantly enhances the diffusion coefficient and free-volume fraction， and increases the radial distribution function （RDF） peak intensity， indicating that higher nitrogen content facilitates hydrazine migration and strengthens local interactions. Higher temperature and hydrazine concentration also promote diffusion and enlarge the free-volume fraction， while decrease the RDF peak intensity， reflecting a more dispersed local configurations under intensified molecular motion and weakened short-range interactions. The thickness of the reaction layer increases with increasing temperature and concentration， and both the characteristic peaks of nitrate ester groups and the N 1s content gradually increase from the exterior toward the interior， exhibiting a graded distribution.

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• Research on the Temperature-dependent Relaxation Modulus Model for Thermally Aged Composite Modified Double-base Propellants

  LIU Jia-ming, YANG Bao-yu, ZHU Liang, YANG Chun-qing, DENG Heng, DANG Jin-feng

  2026,34(2):146-153, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025233

  Abstract(29) HTML(12) PDF(1.74 M)( 92)

  Abstract:To improve the accuracy of long-term storage performance evaluation for solid rocket motor grains and solve the critical limitation of existing models being difficult to simultaneously couple the effects of temperature and aging time， this investigation aims to achieve high-precision prediction of relaxation modulus over a wide range of temperature and the full aging cycle. Based on the stress relaxation data obtained from accelerated aging tests of Composite Modified Double-Base（CMDB） propellant at 343.15 K， a temperature-dependent relaxation modulus model that accounts for aging effects was developed by applying the time-temperature equivalence principle and introducing aging time as an internal variable. The results show that the predicted curves are in good agreement with the experimental data under test temperatures ranging from 233.15 K to 323.15 K and after accelerated aging at 343.15 K for 0-100 days. Thus， it indicates that the developed model can effectively describe the variation of the relaxation modulus for CMDB propellant over a wide range of temperature and the full aging cycle.

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• Numerical Study on the Combustion Characteristics of Aluminized AP/HTPB

  BAI Zhong-yuan, YU Yong-gang

  2026,34(2):154-164, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025173

  Abstract(44) HTML(28) PDF(2.37 M)( 111)

  Abstract:Solid propellants optimization significantly enhances combustion efficiency of the rocket engine. Aluminum （Al） particles are widely used as metallic additives due to the high reactivity and energy density. A two-dimensional homogenized steady-state combustion model with a sandwich structure was developed for AP/HTPB/Al propellants based on a five-step gas-phase reaction mechanism. The reliability of the model was validated by comparing simulation and experimental data. The results show that as the pressure increases from 0.2 MPa to 6.5 MPa transits flame structures from premixed to diffusion combustion， while the peak area of heat release gradually approaches the burn surface. At constant pressure， the burn rates rise significantly with higher Al content， however， the pressure index first decreases and then increases with the increase of Al content. This indicates that there is a trade-off between high burn rates and flame stability.

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• Research on the Lethality of 3D-Printed Polypropylene Jets for Micro UAVs

  ZHANG Shu-tong, ZHAO Shuang, Guo Dong-yang, ZHAO Dong-zhi, CHENG Chun

  2026,34(2):165-179, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025271

  Abstract(75) HTML(18) PDF(3.59 M)( 123)

  Abstract:Polypropylene （PP） asa low-density polymer material， forms jets with considerable lethality. Micro UAVs with advantages such as low cost， strong adaptability， and rapid response， can significantly enhance combat effectiveness， requiring their warheads to balance lightweighting and destructive performance dual demands. This study explores the application potential of 3D-printed polypropylene as a shaped charge material in the damage field of micro UAV warheads. Micro thin-walled polypropylene shaped charges were prepared using Selective Laser Sintering （SLS） technology， and mechanical property tests were conducted to obtain the mechanical properties of 3D printed PP materials. The Johnson-Cook constitutive model parameters were fitted， and the results indicate that the material features excellent ductility and strain rate sensitivity， with dynamic yield strength significantly increasing as the strain rate rises. The polymer jet formation process was analyzed by combining PER theory and viscoplastic theory， revealing its head expansion characteristics. Static shaped charge penetration tests and numerical simulation were adopted to verify the damage lethality of 3D-printed PP jets at 3-5 CD （CD represents the caliber of the shaped charge）. The experimental results show that the effect is optimal at 4 CD， with a penetration depth of 17.10 mm and significant hole expansion. The numerical simulation results indicate a penetration depth of 16.04 mm and an open hole diameter of 7.986 mm， which are highly consistent with the experimental data. The performance of four polymer jets and a copper jet was further analyzed across five distinct dimensions. The research demonstrates that the designed 3D-printed polypropylene shaped charge liner can satisfy the carriage requirements of miniature UAVs， providing a theoretical basis and novel insights for the design of high-lethality micro warhead destruction.

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>Reviews

• Progress in Desensitization of Energetic Materials via Encapsulation

  ZHANG Yi, YU Zhi-hong, XU Han-qing, CHEN Hao, ZHOU Liang, ZHANG Xing-gao, ZHUANG Zhi-hua

  2026,34(2):180-197, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025260

  Abstract(90) HTML(41) PDF(1.14 M)( 155)

  Abstract:The mechanical sensitivity of energetic materials severely restricts their safe application. How to achieve low sensitivity while ensuring high energy density remains the core challenge in current energetic materials research. This paper focuses on the surface coating desensitization technology for energetic materials and reviews recent research progress of mainstream coating technologies and material systems. It emphasizes the analysis of the principles by which the coating layer inhibits the formation and propagation of “hot spots” during mechanical stimulation through three major mechanisms： “filling and buffering”， “energy absorption and isolation”， and “lubrication”. The characteristics and applicability of key technologies such as water suspension， emulsion suspension， in-situ polymerization， spray and microfluidics are summarized. A comprehensive review is conducted on the desensitization effects and mechanism differences of seven types of coating systems， including polymer adhesives， carbon materials， waxes， energetic materials， salts， biomimetic materials， and composite materials. By evaluating the overall performance and development potential of different coating systems， it is suggested that future research should focus on the in-depth revelation of desensitization mechanisms， intelligent design of coating structures， precise process control， and the creation of new multifunctional integrated materials. These efforts are directed toward driving technological innovation， facilitating the development new material systems， and ultimately enhancing the synergy between energy density and safety of energetic materials.

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• Advances in Analytical and Diagnostic Techniques for Thermal Decomposition Mechanisms of Energetic Materials

  SONG Zhao-qiang, CHAI Gui-quan, QIN Yuan, YAN Qi-long

  2026,34(2):198-214, DOI: 10.11943/CJEM2025251

  Abstract(67) HTML(9) PDF(1.05 M)( 120)

  Abstract:To better understand the thermal decomposition behavior of energetic materials， recent advances in key theoretical methods and experimental techniques， including quantum chemical calculations， molecular dynamics simulations， coupled thermal analysis techniques， and spectroscopic and structural characterization methods were summarized. The capabilities and limitations of these approaches in identification of reaction pathways and characterization of energy release and structural evolution were discussed. Quantum chemical calculations provide detailed insights into potential energy surfaces and initial bond cleavage process， but due to the limitations of computational scale， they are primarily applicable to the small molecular systems. Molecular dynamics simulations enable tracking of atomic motion and energy transfer， making them suitable for analyzing typical decomposition pathways， but with limited time scales. Coupled thermal analysis techniques allow simultaneous characterization of thermal effects and gaseous products but have limited ability to identify transient intermediates. Spectroscopic and structural characterization methods can probe the processes of phase transitions， bond rearrangements， and valence state evolution， yet their resolution often hampers the observation of rapid structural changes. Based on the comparative analysis of different techniques， future studies should emphasize integrating theoretical simulations with in situ high-resolution diagnostics， combined with machine-learning potentials， high-throughput computation， and multiscale modeling to promote the research on the thermal decomposition mechanism of energetic materials towards multi-scale coupling and predictable modeling， and enhance the ability of characterization and prediction of complex thermal decomposition behaviors.

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